DBussy is yet another Python binding for accessing D-Bus
<https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/dbus/>. I know there is
already dbus-python <http://dbus.freedesktop.org/doc/dbus-python/>,
among others
<https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/DBusBindings/>. So why do
we need another one?

The main issue is one of event loops. Most of the existing bindings
seem to be based around GLib. However, Python now has its own
“asyncio” event-loop architecture
<https://docs.python.org/3/library/asyncio.html>. This goes back to
Python 3.4, but as of 3.5, you now have full-fledged coroutines
(“async def” and “await”) as a language feature.

Every GUI toolkit already provides its own event loop; so why did
the Python developers decide to add yet another one? The answer
seems clear: to provide a language-standard API for event loops,
and a reference implementation for this API. It should be possible
to adapt other event loops to this same API, and then Python
code written to work with asyncio becomes event-loop agnostic.


What Is D-Bus?
==============

D-Bus is a high-level interprocess communication protocol. It also
provides a standard daemon, that is included with the main Linux
desktop environments, that implements a set of standard “buses”: a
“system” bus that is created at system boot time, and a “session” bus
that belongs to each user who logs into one of these desktop
environments.

Processes can register their services on one of these buses--the
system bus for systemwide access, or the session bus for per-user
access--where other processes can find them by name and connect to
them. Or they can accept connections on entirely separate networking
sockets, without any dependency on the D-Bus daemon. libdbus, the
reference implementation for the low-level D-Bus protocol, supports
both modes of operation.

D-Bus is based around the concept of passing messages conforming to
a standard, extensible format. Messages are of four types:
  * a “method call”
  * a “method return” (normal response to a method call)
  * an “error” (abnormal response to a method call)
  * a “signal” notification

A method-call message is how one process requests a service of another
process via D-Bus; the usual response would be a method-return message
in the other direction indicating the completion status of the service
being performed; it is also possible to send method-call messages
without expecting a reply. If there was something wrong with the
method-call message (e.g. inappropriate parameters, lack of
permissions), then the response would be an error message. One could
also send a method-return with information indicating a failure to
perform the requested service; presumably the choice between the types
of response is that an error return indicates a condition that is not
supposed to happen--a bug in the requesting program.

Signal messages are sent as notifications of interesting events
pertaining to the current session (for the session bus) or the entire
system (for the system bus). They are usually not sent to a specific
destination, but can be picked up by all interested processes on the
bus. There are no replies to signals; if the receiving process cannot
or will not process a particular message, it simply ignores it.

Messages optionally include the following information:
  * a destination “bus name” indicating the process that is to
    receive the message (this is not the name of the bus, but the
    name of a process on the bus)
  * an “object path” which looks like a POSIX absolute file name
    (always beginning with a slash and never ending with a slash,
    except for the root object “/”); the meaning of this is up to
    the receiving process, but it is intended to indicate some
    object within the hierarchy exposed by the process
  * an “interface name” which identifies the particular message
    protocol
  * a “method name” which identifies the particular function to be
    performed within that interface.

Bus names and interface names look like domain names with the components
reversed, so the top level is at the beginning. If you are familiar with
package names in Java, they take the same form, and with the same
intent: to reduce the chance of name conflicts.

D-Bus also includes an extensive, but not extensible, type system for
encoding data in a message. This data represents arguments to the
method call or signal, return results for a method return or the error
name and message for an error. A message contains a sequence of 0, 1
or more items of such data, each of which can be of various types:
“basic” types (e.g. integer, float, string) or “container” types
(structs, arrays, dictionaries) which in turn contain more values,
each of which in turn can be of a basic or (recursively) another
container type. A “signature” is a string encoding the type of a
value, or sequence of values; there is also a “variant” type, which
means the type of the value is encoded dynamically with the value
itself, separate from the signature.

The importance of type signatures is really up to the particular
programs that are trying to communicate: some might insist on values
exactly matching the expected type signature, whereas others might be
more lenient. For example, while the D-Bus type system specifies
different basic types for different sizes of integers of signed or
unsigned varieties, most Python code will probably not care about the
specific distinctions, and treat all these values as of type “int”.


Standard Interfaces
-------------------

D-Bus defines some standard interfaces which are meant to be
understood by most if not all services.

One fundamental one is the “org.freedesktop.DBus.Introspectable”
interface; this defines an “Introspect” method, that is expected to
return an XML string that describes all the interfaces understood by
the object identified by the object path, as well as listing all the
available child objects that can be accessed by appending a slash and
the child name to the parent object path, if any. Introspection is a
very important part of D-Bus: it is what allows users to discover what
services are available on their installations, and throw together
ad-hoc scripts in Python or other high-level languages to make
convenient use of such services, without having to write a lot of
interfacing code.

Another commonly-supported interface is called
“org.freedesktop.DBus.Properties”. This one defines the concept of
*properties*, which are pieces of data notionally attached to object
paths, and which might be readable, writable or both. This interface
defines standard methods to get a property value for an object, set a
new property value, or get all properties defined on an object. It
also specifies a signal that can be sent by a server process as a
general notification to all peers on the bus about changes to its
property values.


Enter DBussy
============

DBussy allows you to take advantage of asyncio, but it doesn’t force
you to use it. DBussy is meant to give you access to (nearly) all the
functionality of the underlying libdbus library
<https://dbus.freedesktop.org/doc/api/html/index.html>. libdbus is a
very low-level, very general library, designed to be called from C
code, that makes no assumptions about event loops at all. Consider the
basic task in a client program of sending a D-Bus request message and
waiting for a reply; or consider a server waiting for a message to
come in. libdbus offers 3 different ways to handle this:

  * poll repeatedly until the message appears
  * block the thread until the message comes in
  * specify a callback to be notified when the message is available

DBussy offers access to all these ways. But it also gives you the
option of engaging the asyncio event loop. This means you can be doing
other things in the loop, and when a message comes in, it can be
passed automatically to a callback that you previously specified.

It also gives clients another way of sending a message and waiting for
the reply: using a coroutine. For example

    async def request_reply(connection) :
        message = dbussy.Message.new_method_call(...)
        ... other setup of message args etc ...
        reply = await connection.send_await_reply(message, timeout)
        ... process reply ...
    #end request_reply

    loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
    dbus_task = loop.create_task(request_reply(connection))
    ... maybe create other tasks to run while awaiting reply ...
    loop.run_until_complete(dbus_task)

On the server side, you can correspondingly use coroutines to handle
time-consuming requests without blocking the main loop. A message
filter or object-path message callback can return, instead of
DBUS.HANDLER_RESULT_HANDLED, a coroutine. The wrapper code will give
libdbus a result of DBUS.HANDLER_RESULT_HANDLED on your behalf, after
creating a task to execute the coroutine on the event loop. The
coroutine can then go on to handle the actual processing of the
request, and return the reply at some later stage.

The dbussy module also offers several more Pythonic facilities beyond
those of the underlying libdbus, including a higher-level
representation of type signatures as Type objects (and subclasses
thereof), and an Introspection object hierarchy that can be easily
converted to and from the standard D-Bus introspection XML
representation.


No Type-Guessing!
=================

Unlike some other Python bindings for D-Bus libraries, DBussy never
tries to guess how to convert Python types to D-Bus types. For
example, D-Bus provides many different sizes of integer, in both
signed and unsigned variants; when retrieving an integer parameter
from a message, DBussy will convert all of these to Python integers,
but when putting a Python integer into a message parameter, there must
always be a signature somewhere specifying which specific D-Bus
integer type to convert it to.

Also, D-Bus variants are always represented in Python as a 2-tuple:
the first element is the signature of the actual type being passed,
and the second is the value of that type.


Multithreading Caveats
======================

While libdbus was supposed to be usable with multithreaded code, in
practice this has turned out to be problematic
<https://lists.freedesktop.org/archives/dbus/2018-March/017428.html>.
The whole point of Python’s asyncio framework is to avoid
multithreading anyway.

The dbussy module does use multithreading in a very limited way,
in just one place: the Connection.open_async() call. It does this
to give the effect of a nonblocking equivalent to a call for which
libdbus only offers a blocking version.


Ravel: The Higher-Level Interface
=================================

Rather than directly manipulating D-Bus message objects, it is usually
more convenient to have a representation where D-Bus object paths are
directly mapped to Python objects, and D-Bus method and signal calls
are similarly mapped to calls on methods of those Python objects. So
on the client side, the local Python objects become “proxies” for the
actual objects implemented by the remote server. And on the server
side, the implementation of an interface can be wrapped up in an
“interface class” with methods that are automatically invoked in
response to incoming D-Bus requests.

Interface classes can also be used on the client side: in this
situation, the method calls are just stubs used for type-checking
outgoing requests, while the signal definitions can be real functions
which are invoked in response to incoming signal messages. Conversely,
on the server side, the signal definitions are stubs used for
type-checking, while the method definitions (in the D-Bus sense) are
real functions implementing those calls.

An interface class can also be both client-side and server-side in
one, which means all the method definitions are real, none are stubs.
So it can be used both for type-checking outgoing messages and
handling incoming ones. For example, this is true of both the common
standard interfaces (Introspectable and Properties), since most if not
all peers are expected to support them.

(Signal definitions are a special case: even in a
client-and-server-side interface, they can be marked as stubs--as in
the standard PropertyHandler interface. This allows you to register
such an interface for introspection purposes, without having to accept
its handling of any signals.)

Both kinds of interface representations are provided by the “ravel”
module--interface classes on the client or server side, and proxy
interfaces on the client side. Ravel also offers different ways to
construct a proxy interface: you can define it yourself, or you can
have Ravel construct it automatically for you by introspecting the
server-side object.

Either way, you start by creating a ravel.Connection object, which is a
wrapper around a lower-level dbussy.Connection object. You can get one
for the session or system bus by calling ravel.session_bus() and
ravel.system_bus() respectively, or you can use a ravel.Server object
(wrapping around the corresponding dbussy.Server) to accept
connections on your own network address, separate from the D-Bus
daemon.


The Client Side: Proxy Interfaces
---------------------------------

Proxy interfaces can be easily constructed in different ways. One way
is to start with a proxy for a bus peer with a particular name. You
get one of these with an expression that treats the connection as
though it were a mapping:

    peer = conn[«bus_name»]

Then you do another lookup on this mapping to get a reference to a
particular object path at that peer:

    obj = peer[«object_path»]

Now, you can get a proxy for a desired interface thus:

    iface = obj.get_interface(«interface_name»)

which causes automatic introspection of that object path on the peer
to obtain all the necessary type information for that interface (if it
is not one of the standard interfaces). So calling a Python method on
this object

    results = iface.«method»(«args»)

translates automatically to the corresponding D-Bus method call to
that object and interface on the remote server, with full type
checking done on both arguments and results.

Note that the method result is always a list.

D-Bus properties are automatically mapped to Python properties,
so you can access their values and assign new ones in the usual
Python way. For example, adding 1 to a numeric property (written
out the long way to demonstrate property access on both the LHS
and RHS of the assignment):

    iface = conn[«bus_name»][«path»] \
        .get_interface(«interface_name»)
    iface.«prop» = iface.«prop» + 1

The above are *blocking* calls, which means the current thread is
blocked while waiting for the reply to the method call. If you want to
do things in a more event-loop-friendly fashion, then use
get_async_interface instead of get_interface, which returns a
coroutine object that evaluates to an asynchronous version of the
proxy object when it finally completes. Method calls and property
accesses on this are automatically also coroutine calls, so you can
use them in await-constructs in your coroutines, or create asyncio
tasks to run them etc.

Here is an example use of the above calls, which pops up a GUI
notification displaying a short message for 5 seconds. Because the
introspection of this interface supplies names for the arguments, it
is possible to pass them to the method call by keyword:

    ravel.session_bus()["org.freedesktop.Notifications"]["/org/freedesktop/Notifications"] \
        .get_interface("org.freedesktop.Notifications") \
        .Notify \
          (
            app_name = "test",
            replaces_id = 0,
            app_icon = "dialog-information",
            summary = "Hello World!",
            body = "DBussy works!",
            actions = [],
            hints = {},
            timeout = 5000,
          )

(But note that the argument names might differ, depending on your
Linux distro version. If you get errors saying certain argument names
are not understood, try it without the argument names. Or do your own
introspection of the interface, to decide what argument names should
be used.)


Proxy Interfaces: Alternative Order
-----------------------------------

The above access to proxy interfaces could be described as
“bus name-path-interface”, after the order in which the components
are specified. Proxies can also be obtained in “bus name-interface-path”
order. This can be convenient for obtaining a proxy interface object
that can then be used to make calls on multiple objects.

In this method, an initial *root* proxy is obtained thus:

   iface_root = conn[«bus_name»].get_interface \
     (
        path = «initial_path»,
        interface = «interface_name»,
     )

Note you need to specify an object path for this initial introspection;
it is probably best to use the shortest (highest-level) path that
supports that interface. Depending on the peer, the root path “/” might work.

From this, you get the proxy for the interface on an actual object by
using the object path as a lookup key, e.g.

    iface = iface_root[«path»]

From here, you can invoke the method calls and access properties
in the same way as before, e.g.

    iface.«method»(«args»)
    ... iface.«prop» ...


Asynchronous Properties
-----------------------

As mentioned, both property and method access can be done asynchronously
on an event loop. Asynchronous *reading* of a property is easy
enough to express:

    val = await obj.«prop»

But how do you do asynchronous *writing* of the property? The obvious
construct

    await obj.«prop» = newval

produces a syntax error: Python doesn’t (at least as of 3.6!) allow
“await” on the left-hand side of an assignment. Instead, you
write it as though it were a blocking call:

    obj.«prop» = newval

but because the interface is defined as asynchronous, this causes
a task to be queued on the event loop to oversee the completion of
the set-property call, and your code can continue execution before
this task completes.

The main consequence of this is that any error exception will be
raised asynchronously. But if you don’t like the idea that execution
will be deferred, you can await the completion of all such pending
property-setting calls with the following call on the root proxy:

    await iface_root.set_prop_flush()

or on the actual proxy interface:

    await ravel.set_prop_flush(iface)

whichever is more convenient. This means you can batch up a whole
series of property-setting calls on any number of objects on the same
interface and bus name, then wait for them all to complete with a
single flush call.


Interface Classes
-----------------

The more structured high-level interface offered by Ravel is built
around the concept of an *interface class*, which is a Python class
that represents a D-Bus interface, either as an actual implementation
or as a “proxy” for making calls to another bus peer. You can then
register instances of this class on a bus connection at selected
points in your object path hierarchy, to handle either only specific
objects at those paths or as a fallback to also deal with objects
at points below those, that do not have their own instance of this
class registered.

An interface class is identified by applying the @ravel.interface()
decorator to the class definition, specifying the kind of interface
(for use client-side, server-side or both), and the interface name, e.g.

    @ravel.interface(ravel.INTERFACE.SERVER, name = "com.example.my_interface")
    class MyClass :
        ...
    #end MyClass

The meanings of the first, “kind”, argument to @ravel.interface are
as follows:
  * INTERFACE.SERVER -- you are the server implementing the method
    calls defined by this interface. However, the signal definitions
    are just “stubs” used for type-checking when you send those signals
    over the bus. This interface definition can also be introspected
    to inform users about the facilities provided by the interface.
  * INTERFACE.CLIENT -- you are a client wanting to communicate with
    a server that implements this interface. The method calls are
    just stubs used for type-checking when you send those calls over
    the bus. The signal definitions can be your actual functions
    that you want to be invoked when those signals are received, or
    they can also be stubs.
  * INTERFACE.CLIENT_AND_SERVER -- both of the above; you implement
    the methods, and maybe the signals as well, and you can also use
    their definitions to send corresponding method and signal calls to
    peers that implement the same interface. The standard interfaces
    (Peer, Introspectable, Properties) are defined in this way.

Within such a class, Python methods that are to handle D-Bus method
calls are identified with the @ravel.method() decorator, e.g.:

    @ravel.method \
      (
        name = ...,
        in_signature = ...,
        out_signature = ...,
        args_keyword = ...,
        arg_keys = ...,
        arg_attrs = ...,
        result_keyword = ...,
        result_keys = ...,
        result_attrs = ...,
        connection_keyword = ...,
        message_keyword = ...,
        path_keyword = ...,
        bus_keyword = ...,
        set_result_keyword = ...,
        ...
      )
    def my_method(...) :
        ...
    #end my_method

As you can see, there are a large number of options for implementing
such a method. It can also be defined as a coroutine with async def if
you have an event loop attached, and Ravel will automatically queue
the task for execution and await any returned result. Partial summary
of arguments:
  * name -- the D-Bus method name. If omitted, defaults to the Python
    function name.
  * in_signature -- the D-Bus signature specifying the arguments (zero or more)
    to the method.
  * out_signature -- the D-Bus signature specifying the results (zero
    or more) the method will return.
  * args_keyword -- the name of an argument to the Python function that will
    be set to the arguments from the message method call. The arguments
    will be passed as a list, or a dict, or an attributed class, depending the
    specification of arg_keys and arg_attrs (see below).
  * path_keyword -- if specified, then the object path field from the
    incoming method call will be passed to the Python function as the
    value of the argument with this name.
  * message_keyword -- if specified, then the dbussy.Message object
    for the incoming method call will be passed to the Python function
    as the value of the argument with this name.
  * connection_keyword -- if specified, then the dbussy.Connection object
    will be passed to the Python function as the value of the argument
    with this name.
  * bus_keyword -- if specified, then the ravel.Connection object
    will be passed to the Python function as the value of the argument
    with this name.
  * set_result_keyword -- if specified, then a function of a single
    argument will be passed to the Python function as the value of the
    argument with this name; the argument passed by calling this
    function becomes the method result.

Passing arguments: the argument with the name given by args_keyword
will hold the extracted arguments from the method call message. If
neither of arg_keys or arg_attrs is specified, then the arguments are
passed as a list. If arg_keys is specified, then it must be a sequence
of names that must match the number of types specified by the
in_signature; in this case, the args will be passed as a dict with the
keys given in arg_keys associated in order with the argument values.

If arg_attrs is specified instead of arg_keys, then it must be a
sequence of names that must match the number of types specified by the
in_signature; a mutable attributed class object is created by calling
ravel.def_attr_class, with the attribute names taken from arg_keys
assigned in order to the argument values.

Returning results: the function can return the result values to be
inserted into the method-return message as the function result, by
assigning to elements of a mutable result argument (passed as the
argument named by result_keyword, or by calling the set_result
function that was passed via the set_result_keyword (above).

If neither result_keys nor result_attrs is specified, then the result
is expected to be a sequence of values matching the out_signature. If
it is returned as the function result, then it can be a tuple or list;
but if result_keyword is specified, then the value of this is a list,
and the values in the sequence must be assigned to the elements of
this list in-place.

If result_keys is specified, then the result is a dict mapping the
names from result_keys to the values of the result sequence in order.
If result_attrs is specified, then the result is a mutable attributed
class object created by calling ravel.def_attr_class, mapping the
names from result_attrs to the values of the result sequence in order.
If result_keyword is not specified, then the result object is expected
to be returned as the function result; otherwise, it is passed as the
value of the argument named by result_keyword, and the handler is
supposed to update its elements in-place.

Signal definitions look similar, except they return no results:

    @ravel.signal \
      (
        name = ...,
        in_signature = ...,
        args_keyword = ...,
        arg_keys = ...,
        arg_attrs = ...,
        connection_keyword = ...,
        message_keyword = ...,
        path_keyword = ...,
        bus_keyword = ...,
        stub = ...,
        ...
      )
    def my_signal(...) :
        ...
    #end my_signal

Also note the “stub” argument--this has meaning on a client-side
interface to indicate that the interface class does not implement
the listener for the signal, but that it is registered separately
with a listen_signal call. This is used for the PropertiesChanged
signal in ravel.PropertyHandler (the standard handler for the
DBUS.INTERFACE_PROPERTIES interface), so that you do not have
to replace the class just to install your own listeners for this
signal.

Properties are defined by implementing getter and/or setter
methods, identified by @propgetter() and @propsetter() decorators
respectively:

    @ravel.propgetter \
      (
        name = ...,
        type = ...,
        name_keyword = ...,
        connection_keyword = ...,
        message_keyword = ...,
        path_keyword = ...,
        bus_keyword = ...,
        change_notification = ...
      )
    def my_propgetter(...) :
        ...
        return \
            «value»
    #end my_propgetter

    @ravel.propsetter \
      (
        name = ...,
        type = ...,
        name_keyword = ...,
        type_keyword = ...,
        value_keyword = ...,
        connection_keyword = ...,
        message_keyword = ...,
        path_keyword = ...,
        bus_keyword = ...
      ) :
    def my_propsetter(...) :
        ...
    #end my_propsetter

Note the following arguments:
  * type -- the type signature for permitted property values.
  * change_notification -- one of the dbussy.PROP_CHANGE_NOTIFICATION values
    indicating whether (and what kind of) signals should be generated for
    changes to this property value. This is specified on the @propgetter(),
    because there is no point notifying about write-only properties.
  * type_keyword -- for passing the actual type of the new property value
    to the setter.
  * value_keyword -- for passing the new property value to the setter.

Getters and setters can be coroutines.


Custom User Data
----------------

With Ravel’s interface classes, it is possible to attach your own
user data items to arbitrary points in the object path tree. To
obtain the user data dictionary for a given object path, do either

    user_data = bus.user_data["/com/example/myapp"]

or

    user_data = bus.user_data["com", "example", "myapp"]

The result is a dictionary into which you can insert whatever
key-value pairs you like, e.g.:

    user_data["com.example.myapp.attribs"] = MyObj(...)


Predefined Interface Classes
----------------------------

Ravel provides predefined interface classes for the
org.freedesktop.DBus.Peer, org.freedesktop.DBus.Introspectable and
org.freedesktop.DBus.Properties interfaces, and these are
automatically registered on Connection instances. The Peer interface
is just a stub, since the actual implementation is hard-coded into
libdbus itself; it is there to provide automatic introspection of this
interface.

The ravel.IntrospectionHandler class defines the standard
Introspectable interface, and provides automatic introspection of all
interfaces registered with a ravel.Connection (including itself and
the other standard interfaces). It extracts the information specified
to the class, method, signal and property-handler decorators, and
generates the appropriate XML form for returning to D-Bus queries.

The ravel.PropertyHandler class defines the standard Properties
interface, and automatically dispatches to @propgetter() and
@propsetter() methods as defined in your registered interface classes.

The ravel.ManagedObjectsHandler class defines the standard
ObjectManager interface. It handles sending out of notifications as
you call the object_added() and object_removed() methods on a
Connection. It is not automatically registered on a Connection object;
you have to trigger its registration by an initial call to
Connection.object_added() with “/” as the object path.


DBussy Examples
===============

Sample code illustrating how to use DBussy/Ravel is available in my
dbussy_examples repo on GitLab <https://gitlab.com/ldo/dbussy_examples>
and GitHub <https://github.com/ldo/dbussy_examples>.


How Do You Pronounce “DBussy”?
==============================

The name is a pun on “dbus” and the name of French Impressionist
composer Claude Debussy. The most natural way to pronounce it would be
the same as his name. At least, that’s my story, and I’m sticking to
it.


Lawrence D'Oliveiro <[email protected]>
2018 March 15