This book contains stories about building software tools.
If you write software on a daily basis, you realize the act of writing software is the craft of creating tools. Software is nothing more than a tool. A spreadsheet is fundamentally a tool to add and subtract numbers. A video game is fundamentally a tool to alleviate boredom. Almost immediately after people started writing software tools we then discovered we needed more tools to permit us to write the tools we set out to build in the first place. Let’s call these tools that are strictly to support writing software (rather than software tools for the general population) meta-tools.
One of the most important meta-tools in the software development world is Git. Git is a meta-tool that helps software developers manage the complexity that comes from writing software. Git allows software developers to store snapshots of their programs (and then easily restore those snapshots if necessary) and to easily collaborate with other programmers (a surprisingly complicated problem). Git is called a source code management (SCM) tool and though there were many other SCMs before Git, Git has taken the software world by storm like no other before it and now dominates the SCM landscape.
GitHub is a company that saw the immense potential of Git early on and built a layer of web services on top of the existing features found in Git. Not surprisingly, one of the factors behind its success was that GitHub employees embraced the ethos of writing meta-tools from the beginning. Building meta-tools requires the courage to take a little extra time to build a meta-tool rather than taking the easy route to get the public-facing software out the door. GitHub employees are proud of this prioritization and have written extensively about the benefits, which include easy on-boarding of new hires and a transparent workflow visible to all employees.
This book looks at the tools GitHub uses internally. The GitHub.com website is itself a meta-tool, and we discuss the many facets of the GitHub service. Specifically these technologies are the GitHub API and related GitHub technologies, Gollum wiki, Jekyll static page generator, and the chat robot called Hubot (if you are not familiar with any of these, we’ll explain them fully in their respective chapters).
To reiterate, this book is not a reference of those technologies. This book is a story-book, a book that relates the process of building software meta-tools, explaining not only the technology specifics, but also the compromises, the realities of refactoring, and the challenges inherent to writing meta-tools in long narrative story form.
Meta-tools require a different mindset than what comes from building software available to the general population. Meta-tools are generally open source, which requires a different level of responsibility and usage. One could argue that software engineers are more demanding of quality than general users because software developers know they can take action to improve or fork software that does not work for them. Meta-tools enforce a higher level of contributory involvement, which makes automated tests almost a requirement. All of these concepts constitute the background story behind meta-tools, and we show you how they play out when building your own.
Using an API to back an application is a common practice today: this is the future of application development. APIs provide a great pattern for making data accessible to the multiscreen world. If your application is backed by a remote service API, the first application could be a mobile app running on Apple’s iOS operating system. Critically, if that business model does not turn out to be correct, you can respond quickly to changing requirements and iterate to build another application for an Android wearable. Or, perhaps you’ll build an integrated car application, or any other console (or even nonconsole) application. As long as your applications can send and receive data using calls to a remote API you are free to build whatever user interface you want on whatever platform you want.
As an author, you could write and host your own API. Many frameworks for popular languages like Ruby, Go, or Java support building APIs using standard architectural styles like REST. Or, you could use a third-party API. In this book we’ll focus on a third-party API: the GitHub API.
Why the GitHub API? The GitHub API is exceedingly relevant if you are building software because you are probably using GitHub to manage your software code. For those that aren’t, you might be using Git without GitHub, and the GitHub API is useful to know there as well, as it layers the functionality of Git into a networked programming interface.
The GitHub API is perhaps the best designed API I’ve ever used. It is a Hypermedia API, which is an arguably successful attempt to make API clients resilient to API changes—a tricky problem. The API is well versioned. It is comprehensive, mapping closely to most features of Git. It is consistent across sections and well organized. The GitHub API is a great API on which to build applications, serving as a case study for a well-designed API.
The GitHub API is extremely comprehensive, permitting access and modification of almost all data and metadata stored or associated with a Git repository. Here is a grouped summary of the sections of the API ordered alphabetically as they are on the GitHub API documentation site:
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Activity: notifications of interesting events in your developer life
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Gists: programmatically create and share code snippets
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Git Data: raw access to Git data over a remote API
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Issues: add and modify issues
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Miscellaneous: whatever does not fit into the general API categorization
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Organizations: access and retrieve organizational membership data
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Pull Requests: a powerful API layer on the popular merge process
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Repositories: modify everything and anything related to repositories
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Search: code-driven search within the entire GitHub database
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Users: access user data
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Enterprise: specifics about using the API when using the private corporate GitHub
In addition, though not a part of the API, there are other important technologies you should know about when using GitHub that are not covered in the API documentation:
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Jekyll and "gh-pages": hosting blogs and static documentation
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Gollum: wikis tied to a repository
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Hubot: a programmable chat robot used extensively at GitHub
Each of these sections of the GitHub technology stack are covered in various chapters (with two exceptions, which we explain next). The GitHub API documentation is a stellar reference you will use constantly when writing any application that talks to the API, but the chapters in this book serve a different purpose: these chapters are stories about building applications on top of the technologies provided by GitHub. Within these stories you will learn the trade-offs and considerations you will face when you use the GitHub API. Chapters in this book often cover multiple pieces of the API when appropriate for the story we are telling. We’ve generally tried to focus on a major API section and limit exposure to other pieces as much as possible, but most chapters do need to bring in small pieces of more than one section.
Here is a short synopsis of each chapter:
- [introduction]
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This chapter covers a first look at the API through the command-line HTTP client called cURL. We talk a bit about the response format and how to parse it within the command line, and also document authentication. This is the only chapter that does not build an application from the technologies presented. [chapter2]: This chapter covers the Gist API, as well as command-line tools and the Ruby language "Octokit" API client. We then take this API and build a simple Ruby server that is stored as a gist and displays gists.
- [chapter3]
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This chapter explains usage of the Gollum command-line tool and associated Ruby library (gem), which is backed by Grit, the C-language bindings for accessing Git repositories. We also document some details of the Git storage format and how it applies to storing large files inside of a Git repository, and show how to use the Git command-line tools to play with this information. We use Gollum and the Grit libraries to build an image management tool that also functions as a regular Gollum wiki, which can be published to GitHub.
- [python_search_api]
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In this chapter we explore the Search API and build a GUI tool to search repositories on GitHub using Python.
- [commit_status]
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This chapter covers a relatively new part of the API that documents the interactions between third-party tools and your code. This chapter builds an application using C# and the Nancy .NET GitHub API libraries.
- [Jekyll]
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If you push a specifically organized repository into GitHub, GitHub will host a fully featured blog, equivalent in most ways to a Wordpress site (well, except for the complexity part). This chapter documents how to format your repository, how to use Markdown within Jekyll, how to use programmatic looping constructs provided by Liquid Templates, and then shows how to import an entire website from the Internet Archive into the Jekyll format using Ruby. We show how to respectfully spider a site using caching, a valuable technique when using APIs or third-party public information.
- [android_and_git_data_api]
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In this chapter we create a mobile application targeting the Android OS. Our application reads and writes information into a Jekyll repository from the Git Data section of the API. We show how to create user interface tests for Android that verify GitHub API responses using the Calabash UI testing tool.
- [Hubot]
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Hubot is a JavaScript (NodeJS) chat robot enabling technologists to go beyond developer operations ("DevOps") to a new frontier called "ChatOps." This chapter illustrates using the Activity and Pull Requests section of the API. In addition, we show how you can simulate GitHub notifications and how to write testable Hubot extensions (which is often a challenge when writing JavaScript code). We string all these pieces together and build a robot that automates assigning pull request review requests.
- [JavaScript]
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Did you know you can host an entire "single-page application" on GitHub? We show how you can build a coffee shop information app backed by a flat file database hosted on GitHub written in the JavaScript language. Importantly, we show how you can write a testable JavaScript application that mocks out the GitHub API when needed.
We don’t cover the Organizations API: this is a small facet of the API with only the ability to list organizations and modify metadata about your organization; once you have used other parts of the API this nook of the API will be very intuitive.
We also don’t cover the Users section of the API. While you might expect it to be an important part of the API, the Users API is really nothing more than an endpoint to list information about users, add or remove SSH keys, adjust email addresses, and modify your list of followers.
There is not a specific chapter on issues. GitHub originally grouped issues and pull requests into the same API section, but with the growing importance of pull requests GitHub has separated them in the API documentation. In fact, they are still internally stored in the same database and pull requests are, at least for now, just another type of issue. [Hubot] documents using pull requests and is a good reference for issues in that way.
The Enterprise API works almost exactly the same as the GitHub.com site API. We don’t have a chapter telling a story about an Enterprise version of the API, but we do provide an appendix that contains a few notes about how the examples work when using an Enterprise server. We also provide the specific syntax for each of the languages used in the chapters that will make any of the examples provided work with an Enterprise server.
Through these stories about the technologies behind GitHub we hope to give you an inside look at the inner workings of the brain of a developer building on top of the GitHub API.
This book should be an interesting source of information for people who have used Git or GitHub and want to "level-up" their skills related to these technologies. People without any experience using GitHub or Git should start with an introductory book on these technologies.
You should have good familiarity with at least one imperative modern programming language. You don’t need to be an expert programmer to read this book, but having some programming experience and familiarity with at least one language is essential.
You should understand the basics of the HTTP protocol. The GitHub team uses a very standard RESTful approach for its API. You should understand the difference between a GET request and POST request and what HTTP status codes mean at the very least.
Familiarity with other web APIs will make traversing these chapters easier, although this book simultaneously aspires to provide a guide showing how a well-thought-out, well-designed, and well-tested web API creates a foundation for building fun and powerful tools. If you have not used web APIs extensively, but have experience using other types of APIs, you will be in good company.
Much of the book focuses on the technical capabilities exposed by GitHub and the powerful GitHub API. Perhaps you feel constrained by using Git only from within a certain toolset; for example, if you are an Android developer using Git to manage your app source code and want to unlock Git in other places in your life as a developer, this book provides a wider vista to learn about the power of Git and GitHub. If you have fallen into using Git for your own projects and are now interested in using Git within a larger community, this book can teach you all about the "social coding" style pioneered and dogfooded by the GitHub team. This book provides a stepping stone for software developers who have used other distributed version control systems and are looking for a bridge to using their skills with Git and within a web service like GitHub.
Like any seasoned developer, automation of your tools is important to you. This book provides examples of mundane tasks converted into automated and repeatable processes. We show how to do this using a variety of languages talking to the GitHub API.
To make this book accessible to everyone, regardless of their editor or operating system, many of the programming samples work within the command line. If you are unfamiliar with the "command line" this book will give you a firm understanding of how to use it, and we bet you will find great power there. If you have hated the command line since your father forced you to use it when you were five, this is the perfect book to rekindle a loving relationship with the bash shell.
If you absorb not only the technical facets of using GitHub but also pay attention to the cultural and ideological changes offered behind the tools, you’ll very likely see a new way of working in the modern age. We focus on these "meta" viewpoints as we discuss the tools themselves to help you see these extra opportunities.
Almost every chapter has an associated repository hosted on GitHub where you can review the code discussed. Fork away and take these samples into your own projects and tools!
Finally, we help you write testable API-backed code. Even the most experienced developers often find that writing tests for their code is a challenge, despite the massive body of literature connecting quality code with tests. Testing can be especially challenging when you are testing something backed by an API; it requires a different level of thinking than is found in strict unit testing. To help you get past this roadblock, whenever possible, this book shows you how to write code that interacts with the GitHub API and is testable.
There are two languages that are so fundamentally linked to GitHub that you do need to install and use them in order to get the most out of this book.
- Ruby
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A simple, readable programming language the founders of GitHub used extensively early in the life of the company.
- JavaScript
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The only ubiquitous browser-side programming language; its importance has grown to new heights with the introduction of NodeJS, rivaling even the popularity of Ruby on Rails as a server-side toolkit for web applications, especially for independent developers.
Undoubtedly, many of you picking up this book already have familiarity with Ruby or JavaScript/NodeJS. So, the basics and installation of them are in appendices in the back of the book. The appendices don’t cover syntax of these languages; we expect you have experience with other languages as a prerequisite and can read code from any imperative language regardless of the syntax. Later chapters discuss facets of the API and go into language details at times, but the code is readable regardless of your familiarity with that particular language. These explanatory appendices discuss the history of these tools within the GitHub story as well as important usage notes like special files and installation options.
Your time will not be wasted if you install and play with these two tools. Between them you will have a solid toolset to begin exploration of the GitHub API. Several chapters in this book use Ruby or JavaScript, so putting in some time to learn at least a little bit will make the journey through this book richer for you.
We, the authors, wrote this book using MacBook Pros. MacBooks have a ubiquitous shell ("BASH") that works almost identically to the one found on any Linux machine. If you use either of these two operating systems, you will be able to run the code from any chapter.
If you use a Windows machine (or an OS that does not include the BASH shell) then some of the commands and code examples may not work without installing additional software.
An easy remedy is to use VirtualBox and Vagrant. VirtualBox is a freely available virtualization system for x86 hardware. Vagrant is a tool for managing development environments: using VirtualBox and Vagrant you can quickly install a Linux virtual machine. To do this, visit the downloads page for VirtualBox and Vagrant. Once you have installed these two tools, you can then install an Ubuntu Linux virtual machine with these two commands:
$ vagrant init hashicorp/precise32
$ vagrant upIf you are looking for a discussion of the GitHub API that focuses on a single language, you should know that we look at the API through many different languages. We do this to describe the API from not only the way the GitHub team designed it to work, but the aspirational way that client library authors made it work within diverse programming languages and communities. We think there is a lot to learn from this approach, but if you are interested in only a specific language and how it works with the GitHub API, this is not the book for you.
This book strives to prove that API-driven code is testable and that there is a benefit to doing so. This book does not intend to provide a manual on how to write perfectly tested code. We cover too many languages to end the healthy debates happening within each community about the right test frameworks. Instead, given our contention that most software projects have zero test coverage, this book tries to help you get past this significant roadblock. There is something transformational about writing tests if you have never done so before. Having these examples in hand, we hope, will allow you to transition to writing testable code for APIs, especially if you have not done so before. Some of the associated repositories have much greater test suites than are documented in this book, but we don’t cover all the entire set of edge cases in every situation.
The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
- Italic
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Indicates new terms, URLs, email addresses, filenames, and file extensions.
- Constant width
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Used for program listings, as well as within paragraphs to refer to program elements such as variable or function names, databases, data types, environment variables, statements, and keywords.
- Constant width italic
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Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values or by values determined by context.
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Supplemental material (code examples, exercises, etc.) is available for download at https://github.com/xrd/building-tools-with-github.
This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, if example code is offered with this book, you may use it in your programs and documentation. You do not need to contact us for permission unless you’re reproducing a significant portion of the code. For example, writing a program that uses several chunks of code from this book does not require permission. Selling or distributing a CD-ROM of examples from O’Reilly books does require permission. Answering a question by citing this book and quoting example code does not require permission. Incorporating a significant amount of example code from this book into your product’s documentation does require permission.
We appreciate, but do not require, attribution. An attribution usually includes the title, author, publisher, and ISBN. For example: “Building Tools with GitHub by Chris Dawson and Ben Straub (O’Reilly). Copyright 2016 Chris Dawson and Ben Straub, 978-1-491-93350-3.”
If you feel your use of code examples falls outside fair use or the permission given above, feel free to contact us at [email protected].
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Chris wants to thank his lovely wife, Nicole. I hope that I have added to this book even a tiny bit of the wit and wisdom you provide to me and our family every day. My son Roosevelt’s energy continues to inspire me and keep me going even when I am at my limits. To my daughter Charlotte, you are my little smiling Buddha. To my mother, who showed me how to write and, most importantly, why to write, which is something we need more of in the technology world. To Tim O’Brien who invited me into this project, thank you, and I hope we can collaborate again. To Bradley Horowitz, who demonstrates how small acts of kindness can have immeasurable impact. And, to David J. Groom, though we have never met face to face, your suggestions and excitement about the book early on came at a critical moment in the life of this book, and I thank you for channeling the excitement I hoped to cultivate with people who would one day pick up this book.
Ben would like to thank his wife, Becky, for her ongoing support and (when needed) push from behind. None of this would have happened without you.