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+
BME3105
+• +
+• +
6 min read

Part 3 - Modelling in Frequency Domain

Table of Contents

Introduction

+

We will deal with SISO (Single-Input Single-Output) systems and introducing the Laplace transform.

+

MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) usually use a different set of mathematical machinery (matrix representation of systems, called state space form). +We will uncover this but later on, but primarily focus is on SISO.

+

As we saw last time, differential equations can be used to represent relationship between input and output of a system. +$$ +a_2 \frac{d^2y}{dt^2} + a_1 \frac{dy}{dt} + y = b_2 \frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + b_1 \frac{dx}{dt} + b_0 x +$$

+

However, there is a problem, system parameters and input and output appear throughout the equation.

+

We would like to represent the system where the input and output are separated from the system parameters.

+

Block Diagrams

+

As we have seen in Lecture 1, we want to be able to represent the system as series of cascading subsystems, which can easily be combined together.

+

However, this can not be achieved (easily) with differential equations.

+

Laplace Transform

+

The Laplace transform is a mathematical tool that allows us to convert a differential equation into an algebraic equation.

+

With this, we can represent the mathematical description of a given system with its block diagram representation.

+

Definition

+
+
+

$$ +\mathcal{L}\{f(t)\} = \int_0^{\infty} f(t) e^{-st} dt = F(s) +$$

+

where $F$ is a complex-valued function of complex numbers.

+

$s$ is called the (complex) frequency variable, with units $s^{-1}$.

+

$t$ is called the time variable, with units $s$.

+

Later on we will use $s = \sigma + j\omega$ where $\sigma$ is the real part and $\omega$ is the imaginary part.

+

Notice that $F(s)$ contains no information about $f(t)$ for $t < 0$, this is called the one-sided Laplace transform.

+

In controls, the mathematical definition of the Laplace transform is rarely used, instead we use tables of Laplace transforms.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
$f(t)$$F(s)$
$\delta(t)$1
$u(t)$$\frac{1}{s}$
$tu(t)$$\frac{1}{s^2}$
$t^n u(t)$$\frac{n!}{s^{n+1}}$
$e^{-at} u(t)$$\frac{1}{s+a}$
$sin(\omega t) u(t)$$\frac{\omega}{s^2 + \omega^2}$
$cos(\omega t) u(t)$$\frac{s}{s^2 + \omega^2}$
+

Important Properties of Laplace Transform

+
    +
  1. +

    Linearity +$$ +\mathcal{L}\{k_1 f_1(t) \pm k_2 f_2(t)\} = k_1 F_1(s) \pm k_2 F_2(s) +$$

    +
  2. +
  3. +

    Differentiation +$$ +\mathcal{L}\{\frac{d f(t)}{dt}\} = s F(s) - f(0) \newline +\mathcal{L}\{\frac{d^2 f(t)}{dt^2}\} = s^2 F(s) - s f(0) - f’(0) \newline +\vdots +$$

    +
  4. +
  5. +

    Frequency Shifting +$$ +\mathcal{L}\{e^{-at} f(t)\} = F(s+a) +$$

    +
  6. +
+

There are some other ones, but these are the most important ones.

+

Inverse Laplace Transform

+

The inverse Laplace transform is the operation that allows us to go from the Laplace domain to the time domain.

+
+
+

$$ +\mathcal{L}^{-1}\{F(s)\} = \frac{1}{2\pi j} \int_{\sigma-j\infty}^{\sigma+j\infty} F(s) e^{st} ds +$$

+

where $j$ is the imaginary unit, $j = \sqrt{-1}$.

+

We will not use the definition of the inverse Laplace transform, instead we will use tables of inverse Laplace transforms.

+

Transfer Functions

+

A tranfer function is a relationship between the Laplace Transform of 2 signals (input and output) of a system.

+

Say that we have a block diagram of a system, with input $U(s)$ and output $Y(s)$. +Where $U(s)$ is the Laplace transform of the input signal $u(t)$ and $Y(s)$ is the Laplace transform of the output signal $y(t)$.

+

The transfer function $G(s)$ is defined as +$$ +G(s) = \frac{Y(s)}{U(s)}. +$$

+

when the initial conditions are zero.

+

Example

+

Consider the following system +$$ +a_0 \frac{d^n y}{dt^n} + a_1 \frac{d^{n-1} y}{dt^{n-1}} + \cdots + a_{n-1} \frac{dy}{dt} + a_n y = b_0 \frac{d^m u}{dt^m} + b_1 \frac{d^{m-1} u}{dt^{m-1}} + \cdots + b_{m-1} \frac{du}{dt} + b_m u +$$

+

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, we get +$$ +[a_0 s^n + a_1 s^{n-1} + \cdots + a_{n-1} s + a_n] Y(s) = [b_0 s^m + b_1 s^{m-1} + \cdots + b_{m-1} s + b_m] U(s) +$$

+

Let’s call those polynomials for $P(s)$ and $Q(s)$, respectively.

+

Then, the transfer function is +$$ +G(s) = \frac{Y(s)}{U(s)} = \frac{Q(s)}{P(s)} +$$

+

$P(s)$ is the characteristic function and $P(s) = 0$ is the characteristic equation.

+

The order of the system is determined by the highest power of $s$ in the characteristic equation.

+

Poles of a transfer function are values of $s$ for which $P(s) = 0$. In other words, they are roots (solutions) of the characteristic equation. There are always $n$ poles.

+

Zeroes of a transfer function are values of $s$ for which $Q(s) = 0$. In other words, they are roots (solutions) of the numerator polynomial. There are always $m$ zeroes.

+

A transfer function is proper if $m \leq n$.

+

Real-world Example

+

Consider a simple mass-spring-damped system.

+

$f(t)$ is the force input. +$q(t)$ is the displacement of the mass (relative to its equilibrium position when f=0).

+

The parameters $m, c, k$ have units of $kg, Ns/m, N/m$, respectively.

+

Firstly, Newton’s second law gives us +$$ +m \frac{d^2 q}{dt^2} + c \frac{dq}{dt} + kq = f(t) +$$

+

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, we get +$$ +m s^2 Q(s) + c s Q(s) + k Q(s) = F(s) +$$

+

Then, the transfer function is +$$ +G(s) = \frac{Q(s)}{F(s)} = \frac{1}{m s^2 + c s + k} +$$

+

Real-world Example 2

+

Consider a simple electrical circuit, with a voltage source, an inductor $L$, a resistor $R$ and a capactior $C$ in series, in a closed loop.

+

$v(t)$ is the voltage input. +$q(t)$ is the charge discplacement (the rate of change of q(t) is the instantaneous current, i(t)).

+

The parameters $L, R, C$ have units of $H, \Omega, F$, respectively.

+

Firstly, Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives us +$$ +L \frac{d^2 q}{dt^2} + R \frac{dq}{dt} + \frac{1}{C} q = v(t) +$$

+

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, we get +$$ +L s^2 Q(s) + R s Q(s) + \frac{1}{C} Q(s) = V(s) +$$

+

Then, the transfer function is +$$ +G(s) = \frac{Q(s)}{V(s)} = \frac{1}{L s^2 + R s + \frac{1}{C}} +$$

+

Combining Transfer Functions

+

Suppose you have on system which takes in input $u_1(t)$ and produces output $y_1(t)$.

+

Suppose also that some other system takes in input $u_2(t)$ and produces output $y_2(t)$.

+

The transfer function for the two systems are, +$$ +G_1(s) = \frac{Y_1(s)}{U_1(s)} \newline +G_2(s) = \frac{Y_2(s)}{U_2(s)} +$$

+

These two systems might be joined by connecting the output of the first into the input of the second so that, +$$ +u_2(t) = y_1(t) +$$

+

Then, the combined system has transfer function +$$ +G(s) = G_1(s) G_2(s) +$$

+

Proof: +$$ +Y_1(s) = G_1(s) U_1(s) \newline +U_2(s) = Y_1(s) \newline +Y_2(s) = G_2(s) U_2(s) = G_2(s) Y_1(s) = G_1(s) G_2(s) U_1(s) +$$

+

If, instead of being connected in series, the two systems are connected in parallel so that they sahare the same input signal, but their outputs add, then, +$$ +u_1(t) = u_2(t) = u(t) \newline +y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) +$$

+

Then, the combined system has transfer function +$$ +G(s) = G_1(s) + G_2(s) +$$

+

Proof: +$$ +Y_1(s) = G_1(s) U(s) \newline +Y_2(s) = G_2(s) U(s) \newline +Y(s) = Y_1(s) + Y_2(s) = G_1(s) U(s) + G_2(s) U(s) = (G_1(s) + G_2(s)) U(s) +$$

+

Summary

+
    +
  • Laplace transform is a powerful tool to convert differential equations into algebraic equations.
  • +
  • Transfer functions are the relationship between the Laplace transform of the input and output signals of a system.
  • +
  • Transfer functions can be combined in series or parallel to form more complex systems.
  • +
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