Most iOS applications have some sense of navigation — a user will progress from screen to screen as they utilize the features of an app. In iOS development, the class UIViewController is primarily responsible for such navigation. Transitions from screen to screen are realized as side effects in the view controller hierarchy (navigation hierarchy).
Typically, view controllers are responsible for creating and presenting other controllers. This results in lots of coupling between controllers. As a result, it becomes difficult to:
- Reuse similar sequences of screens in varying contexts
- Easily modify an app's high level navigation structure
- Effectively implement complex relationships across screens
- Effectively test related sequences of screens
Lasso solves all of these problems via its Flow abstraction.
A Flow represents a feature - or area - of an app, and is commonly composed of a collection of Screens. For example, a "new user" flow might be composed of a series of one-time informational screens followed by a single "let's get started" screen.
A Flow is instantiated and started within an appropriate context of a navigation hierarchy (e.g., a "sign up" flow might be presented on a menu screen, or a "welcome" flow might be pushed onto a navigation stack). The Flow starts by creating its initial Screen, and listens for Output signals. As Outputs arrive, the Flow decides what to do with them. It can create and place another Screen into the navigation hierarchy, emit its own Output (when an event occurs that is more appropriately handled elsewhere), or do whatever else is appropriate for the Flow.
Since Screens and Flows are encapsulated modules with discrete entry and exit points, it's quite easy and common for a Flow to manage both Screens and Flows.
From a functional perspective, Flows are a mechanism for composition — they aggregate smaller independent units of behavior into larger ones. Flows themselves may also be composed. This makes it possible to define the views that constitute an application as a hierarchy of Flows. Describing an app's features in this way drastically reduces complexity and increases maintainability.
Let's say that business has crunched the numbers, and they've decided that we need to provide a short tutorial to our members to enhance new member onboarding. The feature calls for a series of views with images and text describing the program. A user completes the tutorial by progressing forward through all of the views.
How can we implement this the Lasso way? First, we must define the structural types of our Flow.
The types that constitute a Flow's structure are defined in a FlowModule. This is simply a convenience for grouping the member types of a specific Flow, namely its Output and RequiredContext.
Output defines the messages that a Flow can propagate outward to some unknown higher level object. These Output messages constitute the modular boundary of the Flow.
RequiredContext describes the type of UIViewController artifact a Flow requires to make side effects in the navigation hierarchy. A Flow uses this object's native API to present and dismiss Screens. RequiredContext makes it possible to implement the behavior of a set of Screens agnostic to any other (unknown) Screens that may precede or follow them.
enum TutorialFlowModule: FlowModule {
enum Output: Equatable {
case didFinish
case didPressSkip
}
typealias RequiredContext = UINavigationController
}There are several user actions our tutorial Flow must respond to. On the first screen, we see a "next" and a "skip" button. Our Flow must execute some logic in response to the user pressing these buttons. It will handle the "next" button press by creating and showing the second screen. However, it is not responsible for handling the "skip" button press; some higher level object will be responsible for driving the app in response to this event. This logical design is realized by including didPressSkip as an Output case. When the user presses "skip", our Flow will simply emit didPressSkip as an Output.
On the second screen, we see a "done" button. When this button is pressed, our Flow is finished — it has no further screens to show. This is embodied by the didFinish case of Output. Our Flow will emit this message when the "OK" button is pressed. As before, some higher level object will need to respond to this message, progressing the application according to its broader business logic.
We would like to create the effect that the user is progressing forward through the tutorial screens. To satisfy this, we will use the "push" API on UINavigationController. Our Flow needs a way to specify this requirement — our Flow must be started in a navigation controller and be able to make "push" calls on that navigation controller. This is achieved by stating that the RequiredContext is of type UINavigationController.
We are now ready to implement our Flow:
class TutorialFlow: Flow<TutorialFlowModule> {
override func createInitialController() -> UIViewController {
// create, configure and return the first view controller
}
}TutorialFlow inherits from Flow and is generic over TutorialFlowModule. We begin by overriding its createInitialController() method. This is the entry point for a Flow implementation. The UIViewController returned by this method will be placed into the navigation hierarchy when the Flow is started.
The screen we'll use in createInitialController will be from TutorialScreenModule. In fact, this module is set up so that we can use it for the second screen of the tutorial as well. The important parts of this module are:
enum TutorialScreenModule: ScreenModule {
struct State: Equatable {
let title: String
let body: String
let buttonTitles: [String]
}
enum Output: Equatable {
case didPressButton(index: Int)
}
...
}We can create conveniences that describe the two screens of TutorialFlow in terms of TutorialScreenModule.State.
extension TutorialScreenModule.State {
static var welcome: State {
return State(title: "Welcome!", body: "...", buttonTitles: ["Skip", "Next"])
}
static var finish: State {
return State(title: "That was fun!", body: "...", buttonTitles: ["OK"])
}
}We are now ready to implement createInitialController(), using TutorialScreenModule to create and return the "welcome" screen.
override func createInitialController() -> UIViewController {
let welcomeState = TutorialScreenModule.State.welcome
let introScreen = TutorialScreenModule.createScreen(with: welcomeState)
return introScreen.controller
}It is important to note that a Flow is retained by the view controller returned in createInitialController(). This ARC consideration is handled behind the scenes by creating a strong reference from the 'initial view controller' to the Flow. This means that a Flow will live as long as its initial controller.
Next, we must implement the second screen in this Flow. We want to show the "finish" screen when the user presses the "next" button. This is accomplished by observing the Output of the welcome screen and responding appropriately.
class TutorialFlow: Flow<TutorialFlowModule> {
override func createInitialController() -> UIViewController {
let welcomeState = TutorialScreenModule.State.welcome
let introScreen = TutorialScreenModule.createScreen(with: welcomeState)
introScreen.observeOutput({ [weak self] output in
guard let self = self else { return }
switch output {
case .didPressButton(index: let index):
switch index {
case 0:
// handle skip
case 1:
let finishController = self.assembleFinishController()
self.context?.pushViewController(finishController, animated: true)
default:
return
}
}
})
return introScreen.controller
}
private func assembleFinishController() -> UIViewController {
let finishState = TutorialScreenModule.State.finish
let finishScreen = TutorialScreenModule.createScreen(with: finishState)
return finishScreen.controller
}
}TutorialFlow observes the Output of the "welcome" screen, capturing self weakly in order to avoid retain cycles. When TutorialFlow receives the didPressButton message from that screen, it must evaluate the associated index value to determine which button was tapped. We know that this screen has two buttons: "skip" and "next." The indices of these buttons correspond to the buttonTitles property on State — "skip" corresponds to an index value of 0, and "next" to a value of 1.
The "finish" screen is constructed in the same manner as the welcome screen. It is placed into the navigation hierarchy by calling pushViewController(:animated:) on the local context: UINavigationController?. By definition, the context property always reflects the RequiredContext type. It is an optional because it is weakly owned by the Flow, which is necessary to avoid retain cycles.
We can now finish our TutorialFlow implementation. When the user clicks the "OK" button on the finish screen, the tutorial is completed.
private func assembleFinishController() -> UIViewController {
let finishState = TutorialScreenModule.State.finish
let finishScreen = TutorialScreenModule.createScreen(with: finishState)
finishScreen.observeOutput({ [weak self] output in
guard let self = self else { return }
switch output {
case .didPressButton(index: let index):
switch index {
case 0:
self.dispatchOutput(.didFinish)
default:
return
}
})
return finishScreen.controller
}When the "finish" screen emits the didPressButton output, TutorialFlow does not execute any side effects. Instead, it simply emits the didFinish output via its dispatchOutput(:) method. TutorialFlow is not aware of what may happen following the tutorial, but it is responsible for communicating that the tutorial was completed. It will be the role of some other object to drive the app when the tutorial completes.
The "skip" button press on the welcome screen can be handled in a similar fashion. Our TutorialFlow is only responsible for propagating this event as an output.
introScreen.observeOutput({ [weak self] output in
guard let self = self else { return }
switch output {
case .didPressButton(index: let index):
switch index {
case 0:
// handle skip
self.dispatchOutput(.didPressSkip)
...
}
})Now that we have defined our Flow, we need some way of starting it. We would like to present the screens that constitute our Flow, making the requisite side effects in the navigation hierarchy.
TutorialFlow has a RequiredContext of UINavigationController. This is equivalent to the TutorialFlow saying:
"I need some UINavigationController to work with. It doesn't matter if I start at the root of that navigation controller, or on top of a navigation stack with many controllers in it. As long as I'm provided a starting point in some navigation controller, and am able to make calls on it, I will be able to do my job"
TutorialFlow has been defined in isolation and does not currently participate in the broader app. We can potentially show it in many different places with varying navigation hierarchy characteristics.
We could start TutorialFlow in some navigation controller, pushing its initial controller on top of the navigation stack.
let tutorialFlow = TutorialFlow()
tutorialFlow.start(with: pushed(in: navigationController))Alternatively, we could start TutorialFlow at the root of some navigation controller, removing any view controllers currently in its stack.
let tutorialFlow = TutorialFlow()
tutorialFlow.start(with: root(of: navigationController))Here, root(of:) and pushed(in:) are utilities that return a ScreenPlacer<UINavigationController>, a novel Lasso type. The ScreenPlacer abstraction is critical to Flow modularity - ScreenPlacer bridges the gap between UIKit and Flows, allowing us to start a sequence of screens defined in isolation. It is important to understand the mechanics and intuition of the ScreenPlacer type.
A ScreenPlacer creates side effects in the navigation hierarchy. Specifically, its job is to place a single UIViewController into the navigation hierarchy. ScreenPlacer has a notion of "navigation context" - it describes the resulting context of the placed controller. A ScreenPlacer does not reveal how such placement will occur. This enables ScreenPlacer clients to be agnostic to the details of placement.
ScreenPlacer is a general structure for which any number of instances may be defined. This structure is flexible enough to satisfy all navigation hierarchy use cases possible in UIKit.
To understand ScreenPlacer more deeply, we must first examine the Flow base class.
open class Flow<Module: FlowModule> {
public private(set) weak var context: Module.RequiredContext?
public func start(with placer: ScreenPlacer<Module.RequiredContext>) { ... }
}Here, we see that the start(with:) method requires a ScreenPlacer argument. The passed-in ScreenPlacer must be generic over the RequiredContext of the Flow. We also see that Flow holds a weak reference to its context, which is of type RequiredContext.
ScreenPlacer is simply a value wrapper over aplace(:) function.
public struct ScreenPlacer<PlacedContext: UIViewController> {
public func place(_ viewController: UIViewController) -> PlacedContext { ... }
}Conceptually, a ScreenPlacer abstracts away the specifics of making side effects in the navigation hierarchy. A ScreenPlacer client only needs to provide the UIViewController to be placed without caring about how that placement will occur. The place(:) function returns the PlacedContext - an object reflecting the navigation hierarchy that the UIViewController was placed into. As seen in the definition above, the PlacedContext is simply some UIViewController type. The returned PlacedContext object can be used to execute subsequent navigation hierarchy side effects.
When started, a Flow places its initial controller into the navigation hierarchy by calling place(:) on the passed-in ScreenPlacer. The PlacedContext object returned by place(:) is then written to context. The Flow can make calls on this object to show other screens later on.
We can now revisit the pushed(in:) placer and study it in more detail, outlining its implementation details.
let tutorialFlow = TutorialFlow()
tutorialFlow.start(with: pushed(in: navigationController))The ScreenPlacer created by pushed(in:) places the initial controller of TutorialFlow into the navigation hierarchy by calling the native method pushViewController(:animated:) on the passed-in navigation controller. The pushed(in:) placer then returns the passed-in navigation controller as the PlacedContext. This navigation controller is set as TutorialFlow's context. TutorialFlow executes subsequent navigation hierarchy side effects by making calls on this context. In the case of TutorialFlow, we know that it will eventually call pushViewController(:animated) on its context in order to show the "finish" screen.
A compilation error will occur if we attempt to start a Flow with an inappropriate ScreenPlacer:
let tutorialFlow = TutorialFlow()
tutorialFlow.start(with: presented(on: viewController)) // ERRORHere, presented(on:) returns a ScreenPlacer<UIViewController>. This means that TutorialFlow will be provided a context object of type UIViewController. This is inadequate. We know that TutorialFlow needs to be able to push controllers onto a navigation stack, requiring a context object of type UINavigationController.
This compilation failure is incredibly valuable. Our code will not compile if we violate the explicit requirements of a Flow. Flows can thus be chained together with confidence — the compiler will tell us when we have broken a screen sequence.
ScreenPlacers also support view controller embeddings. In Lasso, view controller embeddings are composable with respect to ScreenPlacers — an embedding can be "chained along" to any ScreenPlacer instance. Intuitively, if I have some ScreenPlacer instance, I can place some container view controller with that placer. I can then place some other view controller into that container. This is precisely how ScreenPlacer embeddings work.
We could start TutorialFlow in a modally presented navigation controller.
let tutorialFlow = TutorialFlow()
tutorialFlow.start(with: presented(on: viewController).withNavigationEmbedding())We could even start TutorialFlow as one of many tabs in a UITabBarController. Here, TutorialFlow is placed as the second of two tabs.
let tutorialFlow = TutorialFlow()
let tabPlacers: [ScreenPlacer<UITabBarController>] = tabBarEmbedding(UITabBarController(), tabsCount: 2)
tutorialFlow.start(with: tabPlacers[1].withNavigationEmbedding())We have seen many built-in ScreenPlacer conveniences. Lasso contains many such conveniences covering typical UIKit use cases. Lasso clients are not limited to this built-in set of placers — the ScreenPlacer API is completely extensible. Clients can create custom extensions as desired in support of custom containers and less common use cases.
In concert, Flows and ScreenPlacers are the ultimate tools for describing and implementing an application's sequences of screens.
Lasso flips the implicit model provided by Apple on its head. In typical iOS development, view controllers are responsible for creating and presenting other controllers. This results in lots of coupling between controllers, which destroys modularity and makes reuse / testing very difficult. As new features are added, the codebase inevitably warps into a monolith.
In Lasso, Flows encapsulate sequences of Screens. Thanks to ScreenPlacers, these Flows can be started anywhere in the application. What's more, because both Screens and Flows are explicitly modular, they can be freely composed, all the while maintaining modularity of the resulting higher level objects. This design pattern results in minimal coupling and scales well as the feature set grows.
Thus, Lasso moves us from a world with inherent coupling to one with inherent modularity. This quality incurs many benefits:
- Reusing related collections of
Screensis trivial. - Related collections of
Screenscan be effectively tested in isolation. - Construction and mocking is clean.
- Composition is at our fingertips. We can create all types of new behaviors by aggregating smaller, existing ones.
- Top level application code is much more expressive and maintainable. Where we used to have references to low level controllers, we now have references to higher level abstractions that encapsulate feature sets.
We have only begun to scratch the surface: Stores, Screens, and Flows can be wielded in a surprising number of ways, giving the developer precision control over the logical design of their application. What's more, Lasso's companion library, LassoTestUtilities, provides a mechanism for writing expressive and succinct Flow unit tests. These topics will be addressed in future articles.
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