2-1_Basic_Data_Types.ipynb

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    "# Lecture 2-1\n",
    "# Basic Data Types and Variables\n",
    "\n",
    "## Week 2 Monday\n",
    "\n",
    "## Miles Chen, PhD\n",
    "\n",
    "### Adapted from *Think Python* by Allen B. Downey and *A Whirlwind Tour of Python* by Jake VanderPlas"
   ]
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    "## Values and Types\n",
    "\n",
    "There are different types of data in **base Python**. Other important data types also exist, but only after loading libraries like NumPy and Pandas. We will first begin with those in base.\n",
    "\n",
    "The most commonly used ones will be:\n",
    "\n",
    "- `str` - strings: for text data\n",
    "- `int` - integers\n",
    "- `float` - floats for numbers with decimal values\n",
    "- `bool` - boolean: True or False\n",
    "- `NoneType` - The reserved name and value `None` is used to indicate Null values\n",
    "\n",
    "Python has important data structures that we will cover later, including:\n",
    "\n",
    "- sequences: `list` `tuple` and `range`\n",
    "- mappings: `dict`\n",
    "- sets: `set`\n",
    "- binary: `bytes`"
   ]
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       "int"
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    "type(2)"
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       "int"
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       "float"
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    "type(2.0)"
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     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "bool"
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   "source": [
    "type(True)"
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   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {
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    {
     "data": {
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       "NoneType"
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    "type(None)"
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  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "# Math operations in Python\n",
    "\n",
    "Base Python has only a few math operations\n",
    "\n",
    "- `x + y`\tsum of x and y.\n",
    "- `x * y`\tmultiplication of x and y.\n",
    "- `x - y`\tdifference of x and y.\n",
    "- `x / y`\tdivision of x by y.\n",
    "- `x // y`\tinteger floor division of x by y.\n",
    "- `x % y`\tinteger remainder of `x//y`\n",
    "- `x ** y`\tx to the power of y\n",
    "- `abs(x)`\tabsolute value of x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
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    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "Adding integers together results in an integer"
   ]
  },
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   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
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     "slide_type": "fragment"
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     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<class 'int'>\n",
      "<class 'int'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = 10\n",
    "y = 5\n",
    "print(type(x))\n",
    "print(type(y))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {
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     "slide_type": "fragment"
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    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "int"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 7,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z = x + y\n",
    "type(z)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "15"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "Multiplying integers together results in an integer."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
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   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = 10\n",
    "y = 5"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "int"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z = x * y\n",
    "type(z)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "50"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
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    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "Division always results in float"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {
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     "slide_type": "fragment"
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   "source": [
    "x = 10\n",
    "y = 5"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "float"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 13,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z = x / y\n",
    "type(z)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Floats are always displayed with a decimal point even if it is a whole number."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 14,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "The sum or product of integer with a float results in float"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 15,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<class 'float'>\n",
      "<class 'int'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = 10.0\n",
    "y = 5\n",
    "print(type(x))\n",
    "print(type(y))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
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   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "15.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 16,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x + y"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "50.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 17,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x * y"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "# Floating Point Type\n",
    "\n",
    "A floating point number uses 64 bits to represent decimal values. It can represent many values but only a finite number of distinct values.\n",
    "\n",
    "A floating point number is capable of approximately 16 places of precision.\n",
    "\n",
    "It has a maximum value of `1.7976931348623157e+308` which is `sys.float_info.max` (a little less than $2^{1024}$)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "8.98846567431158e+307"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 18,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "2.0 ** 1023"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.5729814930045264e+308"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 19,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "2.0 ** 1023 + 2.0 ** 1022 + 2.0 ** 1021"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "OverflowError",
     "evalue": "(34, 'Result too large')",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mOverflowError\u001b[0m                             Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[1;32mIn[20], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 1\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;241m2.0\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;241m*\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;241m*\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;241m1024\u001b[39m\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mOverflowError\u001b[0m: (34, 'Result too large')"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "2.0 ** 1024 # this is too big to be represented with 64 bits in double floating point"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "Side effect: Floating point numbers do not work the same way real numbers do."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "a = (1 + 2) / 10"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "b = (1/10 + 2/10)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 23,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a == b # with real numbers, we expect these to be equal"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'0.29999999999999998890'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 24,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'{:.20f}'.format(a) # format to print 20 places after decimal"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 25,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'0.30000000000000004441'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 25,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'{:.20f}'.format(b)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Reference for formatting strings: https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#the-string-format-method"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "To check if two numbers are approximately equal, you can use `isclose()` in the `math` library."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 26,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import math\n",
    "math.isclose(a, b)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "# Integer type\n",
    "\n",
    "Integers in Python use variable amounts of memory and can show very large numbers with great precision."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "89884656743115795386465259539451236680898848947115328636715040578866337902750481566354238661203768010560056939935696678829394884407208311246423715319737062188883946712432742638151109800623047059726541476042502884419075341171231440736956555270413618581675255342293149119973622969239858152417678164812112068608"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
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   ],
   "source": [
    "2 ** 1023"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true,
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     "slide_type": "fragment"
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    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "179769313486231590772930519078902473361797697894230657273430081157732675805500963132708477322407536021120113879871393357658789768814416622492847430639474124377767893424865485276302219601246094119453082952085005768838150682342462881473913110540827237163350510684586298239947245938479716304835356329624224137216"
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     "execution_count": 28,
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   "source": [
    "2 ** 1024"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 29,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "359538626972463181545861038157804946723595395788461314546860162315465351611001926265416954644815072042240227759742786715317579537628833244985694861278948248755535786849730970552604439202492188238906165904170011537676301364684925762947826221081654474326701021369172596479894491876959432609670712659248448274432"
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     "execution_count": 29,
     "metadata": {},
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   ],
   "source": [
    "2 ** 1025"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "### Exponentiation"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
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   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "81\n",
      "81.0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = 9 ** 2 # power operator. Can result in float or int depending on input.\n",
    "b = 9.0 ** 2 # this gives float so the power operator can result in an integer or float\n",
    "print(a)\n",
    "print(b)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "There is no square root function in base Python"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 31,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'sqrt' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[1;32mIn[31], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 1\u001b[0m sqrt(\u001b[38;5;241m9\u001b[39m)\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'sqrt' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sqrt(9)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 32,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "9 ** 0.5 # could work as an alternative to sqrt function."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "Mathematical constants and many math functions are not defined in base Python. To gain access to common mathematical constants and functions, you must load the `math` library."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 33,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
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    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
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   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'pi' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[1;32mIn[33], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 1\u001b[0m pi\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'pi' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "pi"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 34,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'exp' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[1;32mIn[34], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 1\u001b[0m exp(\u001b[38;5;241m2\u001b[39m)\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'exp' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "exp(2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 35,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'sin' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[1;32mIn[35], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 1\u001b[0m sin(\u001b[38;5;241m0\u001b[39m)\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'sin' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sin(0)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## the `math` module\n",
    "\n",
    "to do math, you must import the `math` module. The `numpy` module will also have a lot of math operations"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 36,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import math"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 37,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 37,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "math.sqrt(9)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3.141592653589793"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 38,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "math.pi"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 39,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "7.38905609893065"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 39,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "math.exp(2) # this is e^2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 40,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "math.sin(math.pi / 2) # the math.sin function uses radians"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 40,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "math.sin(math.pi / 2) # the math.sin function uses radians"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.5707963267948966"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 18,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import math\n",
    "math.radians(90) #degree value into radians"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 17,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import math\n",
    "math.sin(math.radians(90))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "# Boolean Type\n",
    "\n",
    "Booleans are used to express True or False"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 41,
   "metadata": {
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "bool"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 41,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 42,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "str"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 42,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(\"True\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "There is only one accepted spelling of `True` and `False`. All other spellings will not be the same as the boolean value."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'TRUE' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[0;32mIn[19], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28mtype\u001b[39m(TRUE) \u001b[38;5;66;03m# TRUE or T or t or true\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[1;32m      2\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;28mtype\u001b[39m(\u001b[38;5;28;01mTrue\u001b[39;00m)\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'TRUE' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(TRUE) # TRUE or T or t or true\n",
    "type(True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "# String Type\n",
    "\n",
    "Strings in Python are created with single or double quotes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "message1 = \"Hello! How are you?\"\n",
    "message2 = 'fine'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "A few string functions. We'll cover strings more thoroughly in a later lecture"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "19"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 45,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(message1) # number of characters"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'finefinefinefine'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 46,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "4 * message2 # \"multiplication\" with strings"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Placeholders in strings can be created with curly braces in conjunction with the `.format()` method."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 47,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "name = \"Miles\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'My name is Miles and my school is UCLA.'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"My name is {name} and my school is {school}.\".format(name = name, school = \"UCLA\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "More on the format operator:\n",
    "https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_string_format.asp"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "# Variables and Assignment\n",
    "\n",
    "An assignment statement assigns a value to a variable name. It is done with a single equal sign. `=`\n",
    "\n",
    "The name **must** be on the left-hand side of the equal sign.\n",
    "\n",
    "The value being assigned must be on the right-hand side of the equal sign.\n",
    "\n",
    "When an assignment operation takes place, Python will not output anything to the screen."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "n = 5"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "5\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    },
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "# Python Variables are Pointers\n",
    "\n",
    "Contrast Python to other languages like C or Java. In those languages, when you define a variable, you define a container or 'bucket' that stores a certain kind of data.\n",
    "\n",
    "```\n",
    "// C code\n",
    "int x = 4;\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "The above line defines a 'bucket' in memory intended for integers called `x` and we are placing the value 4 in it.\n",
    "\n",
    "In Python, when we write"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = 4"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "We are defining a *pointer* called `x` that points to a bucket that contains the value 4. With Python, there is no need to \"declare\" variables. \n",
    "\n",
    "In Python, we are allowed to have the variable point to a new object of a completely different type. Python is *dynamically-typed*.\n",
    "\n",
    "We can do the following with no problems:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = 1         # x points to an integer\n",
    "x = \"hello\"   # x points to a string\n",
    "x = [1, 2, 3] # x points to a list"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "# Variable Names\n",
    "\n",
    "You can choose almost anything to be a variable name.\n",
    "\n",
    "A few rules: \n",
    "\n",
    "- names can have letters, numbers, and underscore characters `_`\n",
    "- must not start with a number\n",
    "- no symbols other than underscore\n",
    "- no spaces\n",
    "- cannot be a Python keyword"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Python Keywords\n",
    "\n",
    "~~~\n",
    "False      await      else       import     pass\n",
    "None       break      except     in         raise\n",
    "True       class      finally    is         return\n",
    "and        continue   for        lambda     try\n",
    "as         def        from       nonlocal   while\n",
    "assert     del        global     not        with\n",
    "async      elif       if         or         yield\n",
    "~~~"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## The Art of Naming Variables\n",
    "\n",
    "As you program, do your best to think of good variable names. This is surprisingly hard to do.\n",
    "\n",
    "The goal is being able to read your program and understand what the variable is without having to go back to the assignment statement to remember.\n",
    "\n",
    "Some principles (taken from: https://geo-python.github.io/site/notebooks/L1/gcp-1-variable-naming.html)\n",
    "\n",
    "- Be clear and concise.\n",
    "- Be written in English.\n",
    "- Not contain special characters. It is possible to use lämpötila as a varible name, but it is better to stick to ASCII (US keyboard) characters."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Examples of variable names that are not good"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 53,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "s = \"101533\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 54,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "sid = \"101533\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "The above names have the problem that we have no idea what they represent."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 55,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "finnishmeteorologicalinstituteobservationstationidentificationnumber = \"101533\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "This has the problem that it is too long and difficult to read"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Examples of variable names that are better\n",
    "Naming conventions: \n",
    "\n",
    "- `snake_case` or `pothole_case` uses underscores between words\n",
    "- `lowerCamelCase` or `UpperCamelCase` uses capital letters to signify new words. lower camel case starts with a lowercase letter, and upper camel case starts with an upper case letter"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 56,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "fmi_station_id = \"101533\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 57,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "fmiStationID = \"101533\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Other Naming considerations:\n",
    "\n",
    "Taken from: https://hackernoon.com/the-art-of-naming-variables-52f44de00aad\n",
    "\n",
    "- It is helpful if the name of a list or array is **plural**.\n",
    "- If the variable contains string values including `Names` as part of the variable name can be helpful."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 58,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# not great\n",
    "fruit = ['apple', 'banana', 'orange']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 59,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# good\n",
    "fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'orange']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 60,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# even better as Names implies the usage of strings\n",
    "fruitNames = ['apple', 'banana', 'orange']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "fruitQtys = [13, 45, 90]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Boolean values\n",
    "\n",
    "Variables containing boolean values are best when they are in the form of a question that can be answered with a yes or no."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# not great\n",
    "selected = True\n",
    "write = True\n",
    "fruit = True"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# good\n",
    "isSelected = True\n",
    "canWrite = True\n",
    "hasFruit = True"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "if(isSelected):\n",
    "    print(\"this is the one selected\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Numeric values\n",
    "\n",
    "If it makes sense, adding a describing word to the numeric variable can be useful"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 63,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# not great\n",
    "rows = 3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 64,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# better\n",
    "minRows = 1\n",
    "maxRows = 50\n",
    "totalRows = 3\n",
    "currentRow = 7"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Function Names\n",
    "\n",
    "- functions that modify an object should be named with an **action verb**.\n",
    "- functions that do not modify an object but return a modified version of the object should be named with a **passive form of a verb**.\n",
    "\n",
    "For example, a function that will take a list, and modify it by sorting it should be called `sort()`\n",
    "\n",
    "On the other hand, a function that takes the list, and does not modify the list itself, but simply shows a sorted version of the list can be called `sorted()`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "source": [
    "## Learn Python by studying Python\n",
    "\n",
    "The language Python uses many of these best practices for naming functions. You can learn by simply paying attention to how things are written in Python."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 65,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['BMW', 'Ford', 'Toyota', 'Volvo']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 65,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "carBrandNames = ['Ford', 'BMW', 'Volvo', 'Toyota']\n",
    "carBrandNames.sort() # sorts and modifies the list itself\n",
    "carBrandNames"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 66,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['Audi', 'Chevrolet', 'Honda']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 66,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "carBrandNames = ['Chevrolet', 'Audi', 'Honda']\n",
    "sorted(carBrandNames) # returns the sorted list, but does not modify the original list"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 67,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['Chevrolet', 'Audi', 'Honda']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 67,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "carBrandNames # we see the list is unmodified"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 68,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "slide"
    }
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['Chevrolet', 'Audi', 'Honda']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 68,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "carBrandNames"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 69,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "AttributeError",
     "evalue": "'list' object has no attribute 'sorted'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m                            Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[1;32mIn[69], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 1\u001b[0m carBrandNames\u001b[38;5;241m.\u001b[39msorted()\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m: 'list' object has no attribute 'sorted'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "carBrandNames.sorted() # this attribute does not exist"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 70,
   "metadata": {
    "slideshow": {
     "slide_type": "fragment"
    },
    "tags": [
     "raises-exception"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'sort' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[1;32mIn[70], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 1\u001b[0m sort(carBrandNames)\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'sort' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sort(carBrandNames) # this function does not exist"
   ]
  }
 ],
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