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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Erohwa, Uvwie, Urhobo, Is Erohwa still alive, phonology, Uvwie vowels, Ikoyo-Eweto, Ugorji, Diffre-Odiete, Philip, Ekiugbo, ỌGHẸNẸSUOWHO, Dissecting the Phenomenon of Borrowing in Urhobo, A note on lexical nominalisation in Urhobo">
<title>ENG212</title>
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<header>
<div id="header">
<h1>APPLIED ENGLISH LINGUISTICS FOR NCE STUDENTS</h1>
</div>
</header>
<nav>
<div id="navigation" style="text-align: center" >
<a href="#one"><u><b>History and Functions of English in Nigeria</b></u></a> </li> <br>
<a href="#two"><u><b>Definition and Levels of Linguistic Description of Language</b></u></a> <br>
<a href="#three"><u><b>What is Applied English Linguistics?</b></u></a><br>
<a href="#four"><u><b>Language Teaching and Learning</b></u></a><br>
<a href="#five"><u><b>Errors and Error Analysis</b></u></a>
</div>
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<br> <br> <br> <br><br>
<div style="background-color: LightCyan"; "text-align: justify" >
<section id="one">
<h2>1. History and Functions of English in Nigeria</h2>
<h3>1.1 The Implantation of English in Nigeria</h3>
<p>The use of the English language in Nigeria dates back to the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century when British merchants and Christian
missionaries settled in the coastal towns of Badagry in the present day South Western Nigeria and Calabar, a town in the present day South
Eastern Nigeria (Taiwo, 2009). Prior to this period, the different towns and kingdoms in today’s Nigeria which hitherto were quasi-independent
communicate using their mother tongue or the language of the immediate environment. According to Okere and Nwolu (2016), the implantation of English
in Nigeria followed three channels, which are commerce, missionary activities and colonial rule. The trade relationship between British traders and
Nigerians in the 17th and 18th centuries during which a ‘contact English’ developed was the first step in the incursion of English into Nigeria.
This was followed by the Christian missionary expedition of the 19th century; while the colonisation of Nigeria in the 20th century consolidated the process.</p>
<br><p>The spread of English language in Nigeria was however made possible through education and the repatriation of slaves.
Thus, the first time the English language came into Nigeria was through trade. Just before the middle of the nineteenth century, Christian missionaries
from the United Kingdom introduced formal Western education to Nigeria. Prior to that, children were taught tradition, culture, history, and the like
by their parents, who were also taught by their own parents. After the formal system of education was introduced and accepted, the entire system was
left in the hands of missionaries, who began teaching children and adults who wanted to learn English. According to Taiwo (2009:3), “the primary aim of the
Christian mission was not to make their converts speak English; rather, it was to make them literate enough to read the bible in their indigenous languages”.</p>
<br><p>The invasion of European colonial masters and slave trade activities along Africa's West Coast in the 18th century are thought to have paved the
way for their tradition, language, and culture, some of which can still be seen today. Earlier forms of English were spoken, such as "Coastal English" and "Patua English" (Pidgin or broken English), which was a more adaptable English variant as a quick and easy means of communication. The entry of the British who were English speaking people in 1841, to the southern and south —western parts of Nigeria, inevitably raised the question of a language to adopt for communication between the indigenous population and the guest; more so, the European guests felt the 'native' languages were too "extensive and not of high quality... and never likely to become of any practical use to civilization".</p>
<br><p>In 1882, the English language, which was already widely spoken in Nigeria by the elites and their children, was accepted and implemented as the primary channel of instruction and the generalised approved communication language in corporate settings (Schools, Post Offices, Corporate Organizations, Airports, Federal and State Parastatals, and so on). Consequently, the education ordinance and codes of 1882 (revised in 1896, 1918 and 1926) were enacted for English language to be as the "Official Language". Aspects of the last two events coincided with activities leading to the abolition of slave trade in 1807, which led to the return of some of the slaves who were already exposed to been exposed to Western education and Christianity.</p>
<br><br>
<h3>1.2 Functions of English in Nigeria</h3>
<p>The English language play many roles in Nigeria. Some of these roles are second language, official language, medium of instruction, subject, language of media and language of inter-ethnic communication.</p>
<ol>
<li>Second Language: English is used as a second language in Nigeria. Its classification as a second language thus relates to the language's status and function, as well as the mode, order, and age or period of acquisition. [Despite the fact that the vast majority of English speakers in Nigeria speak it as a second language, a growing number of young Nigerians speak Nigerian English as their first language.]</li>
<li>Official Language: English is the official language of Nigeria. Thus, it is the language used in formal domains such as government, administration, education, the judiciary, business, the mass media, and international diplomacy. </li>
<li>Medium of Instruction: The new Nigerian Language Policy (approved 30th Nov., 2022) recognizes the English language as the medium of instruction is Schools from Junior Secondary School 1, while the mother tongue will be the exclusive medium of instruction for pupils from Primaries 1 to 6. Prior to this, the National Policy on Education recognizes the English language as medium of instruction from Primary 4. These notwithstanding, English continues to serve as the de facto medium of instruction in all levels of education. Any of these policies, however, will be difficult to implement. This is because most languages do not yet have instructional materials or orthographies. This is in addition to a lack of qualified language teachers.</li>
<li>Subject of Study: The National Policy on Education recognizes English as one of the subjects to be taught in primary and secondary schools. The Nigerian University Commission, the National Commission for Colleges of Education and the National Board for Technical Education also recognize the language as a general studies course in universities, colleges of education and polytechnics respectively. In fact, English is a subject taught in primary, secondary, and postsecondary schools in all English-speaking countries, including Nigeria. It is regarded as one of the most important subjects that a student must learn and pass, especially in their O’level.</li>
<li>Language of the media: The media outlets (radio, newspapers, magazines, television etc) in Nigeria convey more information to the general public using the English language.</li>
<li>Language of inter-ethnic communication: English, as the country's de facto lingua franca, serves as a bridge across the ethnic divide.</li>
</ol>
<br><br>
<h3>1.3 Study Questions</h3>
<ol>
<li>Write a short note on the history of English language in Nigeria.</li>
<li>Identify and explain the three main routes through which English came to Nigeria.</li>
<li>List five functions of English language in Nigeria</li>
<li>Explain three of the functions of English language in Nigeria.</li>
<li>Explain the following
<ul>
<li>English as a second language</li>
<li>English as a medium of instruction</li>
<li>English as a subject of study.</li> </ul> </li>
<li>Discuss the role of the missionaries in the implantation of English language in Nigeria.</li>
<br> <br> <br>
</section></div>
<div style="background-color: LightCyan"; "text-align: justify">
<section id="two">
<h2>2. Definition and Levels of Linguistic Description of Language</h2>
<h3>2.1 What is Linguistics?</h3>
<p>Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The term science is defined as a “…systematized knowledge derived from observation, study, and experimentation carried on to determine the nature or principles of what is being studied.” (Collins Dictionary). Thus, linguistics is a science because it involves a thorough, systematic, objective, and precise examination of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. By scientific therefore, we mean the procedures employed in linguistic research/study which includes observation, report of observation, formulation of hypothesis, hypothesis testing etc. This contrast with the essentially non-scientific approach of traditional language studies—that is, the entire history of ideas about language from Plato and Aristotle down to nineteenth-century language history study (comparative philology).</p>
<br><p>In explaining the implications of the term ‘science’ encountered in the definition of linguistics, Crystal (1981:3) identified four phenomena that should define linguistics as a science. According to him, four aims of the scientific approach to language, often cited in introductory works on the subject, are comprehensiveness, objectivity, systematicness and precision. </p>
<ol>
<li>Precision (or explicitness): This means that any definition, terminology, rule, criterion or generalization used must be clear, precise and unambiguous. <li>
<li>Objectivity: Objectivity means that the procedures, techniques and results are very verifiable.</li>
<li>Systematicness (or systematicity): This refers in general terms to a network of pattern relationship constituting the organisation of language. Language is systematic: it contains two systems namely sound and meaning.</li>
<li>Comprehensiveness: This refers to the state or condition of including all or nearly all elements or aspects of something, i.e. all generalizations and exceptions must be accounted for.</li>
<br>
<h2>2.2 Branches of Linguistics</h2>
<p>According to Akmajian et al (2010), traditional areas of linguistic analysis correspond to phenomena found in human linguistic systems. These areas are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences); semantics (meaning); morphology (structure of words); phonetics (speech sounds and equivalent gestures in sign languages); phonology (the abstract sound system of a particular language); and pragmatics (how social context contributes to meaning). An overview of the first five which is our concern in this course is given below.</p>
<h3>2.2.1 Phonology</h3>
<p>Phonology is the study of the language-specific selection and organisation of sounds to signal meaning. It provides the basis for which explanations can be made about the nature of phonological features and their organization into segments, syllables and words, the way suprasegmental features like tone align and spread relative to consonants and vowels and the sort of changes sounds may undergo in certain environment (Ekiugbo, 2016). Phonology studies the functional properties of the sounds, while phonetics focuses the physical properties of speech sounds. According to Roach (1998), there are three areas that come within the subject of phonology. These are: (i) study of the phonemic system (ii) phoneme sequences and syllable structure and (iii) suprasegmental phonology.</p>
<br>
<h3>2.2.2 Morphology</h3>
<p>Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. The smallest unit of analysis in morphology is the morpheme, which is defined as “the smallest indivisible unit of semantic content or grammatical function that words are made up of” (Katamba 1993). It is the smallest unit of meaning or grammatical function that words can be divided into. Morphemes have two types: free and bound morphemes. The free morpheme is that part of a word which can stand by itself. It is the core of a word which can exist independently (eg, boy, girl, lorry); while the bound morpheme is that part of a word which cannot stand alone but must be attached to a word (eg, -s, -ed, un-).</p>
<br>
<h3>2.2.3 Syntax</h3>
<p>Syntax is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Some of its central concern includes: word order, internal structure of phrases/clauses, grammatical categories, agreement relation, etc.</p>
<ol>
<li>Phrase: a group of words which cannot express complete thought or meaning. </li>
<li>Sentence: a unit that is meaningful and expresses a complete thought. Can function as statement, question, command or exclamation.</li>
<li>Word order: the order of the syntactic constituents (a word or group of words that function as a unit) of a language: SVO, VOS, SOV, etc.</li>
<li>Grammatical relations: this is the functional relationships between constituents in a clause. Such relationships can be subject, direct object, indirect object, complement, etc.
Eg: Kunle in the following
<ol>
<li>Kunle loves Ada (Kunle is the subject)</li>
<li>Ada loves Kunle (Kunle is the object)</li>
<li>Ada gave the book to Kunle (Kunle is the indirect object)</li>
<li>Ada gave Kunle to Obi (Kunle is the direct object)</li></ol> </li> </ol>
<br>
<h3>2.2.4 Semantics</h3>
<p>In linguistics, semantics is the subfield that studies meaning (Partee, 1999). It can address meaning at the lexical level (the nature of the meaning of words) or post-lexical level (which pertains on how smaller parts, like words, combine and interact to form the meaning of larger expressions such as sentences). Some prominent issues in semantics include compositional semantics, lexical semantics, ambiguity and vagueness, presupposition and entailment, etc. Compositional semantics refers to how smaller parts, like words, combine and interact to form the meaning of larger expressions such as sentences. Lexical semantics concerns itself with the nature of the meaning of words.</p>
<br><p>Ambiguity may be defined as an interpretive uncertainty resulting from possibility of several interpretations of an expression. For example, “flying planes can be dangerous” can mean: ‘to fly planes can be dangerous’ or ‘planes which are flying can be dangerous’. Presupposition is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse. Eg “Jane no longer writes fiction” presupposes that “Jane once wrote fiction”.</p>
<h2>2.3 Take Home</h2>
<p>Using relevant examples and illustrations, discuss the following concepts:</p>
<ol> <li>Vagueness</li> <li>Entailment</li>
<br>
<h2>2.4 Study Questions</h2>
<ol>
<li>Define linguistics.</li>
<li>Why is linguistics a science?</li>
<li>List and explain the four phenomena that should define linguistics as a science</li>
<li>Explain the following concepts- phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics</li>
<li>List three central concern in syntax</li>
<li>State the function of “KUNLE” in each of the sentences below:
<ol><li>Kunle loves Ada </li>
<li>Ada loves Kunle</li>
<li>Ada gave the book to Kunle </li>
<li>Ada gave Kunle to Obi</li> </ol> <li>
</ol>
<div style="background-color: LightCyan"; "text-align:justify">
<section id="one">
<h2>1. What is Applied English Linguistics?</h2>
<h3>3.1 Definition and Branches of Applied Linguistics<h3>
<p>Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates and offers solutions to language-related real-life problem. Crystal (2008: 31) defines it as a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience. It is an interdisciplinary field that seeks out, identifies, and provides solutions to real-world problems caused by language-related causes. Language acquisition, language teaching, literacy, literary studies, gender studies, speech therapy, discourse analysis, censorship, professional communication, media studies, translation studies, lexicography, and forensic linguistics are all covered in this research (Nordquist, 2019).</p>
<br><p>Applied linguistics addresses a wide range of issues. Fields in which it routinely come into play are education, psychology, communication research, anthropology, and sociology. Thus, there are many branches of Applied linguistics, the most well-developed of which is the teaching and learning of foreign language. Other branches of applied linguistics include lexicography, translation, speech pathology/therapy, language planning, language disorder (clinical linguistics), etc. Historically, the term applied linguistics owes its origin to US language-teaching programmes during and after the Second World War, which was largely based on Leonard Bloomfield's Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages (1942). It arose in the 1940’s in the latter part of World War II when the war effort required American soldiers to be able to speak the languages of the places where they were dispatched to do battle. Some theoretical linguist who had an intimate knowledge of the structure of especially the indigenous American Indian languages look up this concern. Thus, at the inception of applied linguistics as a discipline the first concern was the application of linguistic analysis to language teaching.</p>
<br><p>According to Mohammed (2020), as of 1980, broad agreement was achieved among the major practitioners in the field that applied linguistics: (1) was interdisciplinary, drawing on a multitude of disciplines including psychology, sociology, and pedagogy as well as theoretical linguistics; (2) was not limited to language teaching but included a broad range of fields including lexicography, stylistics, speech pathology, translation, language policy, and planning among others; (3) performed a mediating function between theory and practice. He also added the following to these three characteristics of applied linguistics: (4) applied linguistics is “problem-based”, and (5) brings linguistic insight and analysis to bear on practical issues of language use “situated in time, place, society, and culture” (Sridhar 1993: 7).<p>
<br>
<h3>3.2 Applied English Linguistics<h3>
<p>Applied English linguistics is concerned with the role of applied linguistics in the English language teaching practice, that is, how the knowledge of applied linguistics can be used in the teaching and learning of English as a second language. English language teaching can take a variety of forms, including TESL and TELF. TESL is an abbreviation for “Teaching English as a second language”. It is the teaching of English to people who speak a different language and who live in a country where English is the main language spoken. TEFL on the other hand is an abbreviation for “Teaching English as a second language.” It is English which is taught to students in a foreign, non-English speaking country.</p>
<br><p>Applied linguistics is essential in the practices of English teaching because it supports the teacher in the study of second language acquisition, conduction of error analysis, and making learning easier to get and understand for learners. This explains why Khan (2011:105) asserts that “in the modern educational setting, the English teacher is supposed to know linguistics or applied English linguistics in order to prove himself as an effective English language teacher.” the study of second language acquisition studies how the development of language-teaching methodologies can help understand when language learning takes place and when it doesn’t (Gass and Selinker, 2008:20). Traditional methodologies based their teaching on memorizing vocabulary and repetition until learners can produce a sentence, which is different from the applied linguistic method. For instance, Khan also notes that in most pedagogic situations, the teacher of English is bound to make error/contrastive analysis between the L1 of the students and the target language so that he can evolve a compatible strategy for each sub-aspect of the language: sound, grammar, spelling, meaning etc. This comparative method has been used in contrastive analysis and error analysis.</p>
<br>
<h3>3.3 Study Questions</h3>
<ol>
<li>What is Applied linguistics?</li>
<li>Write a short note on the history of Applied Linguistics.</li>
<li>List five branches of Applied Linguistics.</li>
<li>Discuss the concern of applied English linguistics.</li>
<li>Write short notes on ESL and ELF.</li>
<li>How is applied linguistics essential in the practices of English teaching?</li>
<center> From this point forward is still under construction</center>
<div style="background-color: LightCyan">
<section id="one">
<h2>4. Language Teaching and Learning</h2>
<h3>4.1 Overview of Language Teaching and Learning</h3>
Teaching and learning are two sides of the same coin: students on one side and teachers on the other. This is because although everything that happens in a classroom (whether traditional or online) is determined by the teacher, the teaching outcome is dependent on both the teacher and the student. This is because ****. Learning is the act of acquiring or gaining knowledge of a subject or skill through study, experience, or instruction. It is a relatively permanent change in behavioural tendency that is the result of reinforced practise (Kimble and Garmezy, 1963:133). Teaching, on the other hand, can be defined as demonstrating or assisting someone in learning how to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing knowledge, or causing someone to know or understand something.
4.2 Factors that affect effective teaching/learning of English
There are several factors that can affect the effective teaching and learning of English. These factors can be grouped in sociological and psychological ones.
4.2.1 Sociological
These are
4.2.2 Psychological Factors
These are
4.3 Study Question
<div style="background-color: LightCyan">
<section id="one">
<h2>1. History and Functions of English in Nigeria</h2>
Chapter Five: Error and Error Analysis
5.1 Definition, Sources and Usefulness of Errors in the Classroom
Nnnnnn
Ddddd
5.2. Definition and Procedure of Error Analysis, Inter-language and Intralanguage errors, Eclectic Method.
5.3 Error analysis: Analysis of errors from selected texts based on psycholinguistic and linguistic analysis
1. (a) State the error in each of the sentences below: [2 marks each]
i. I known the city of Aba
ii. I am study Linguistics
iii. I cook yesterday
iv. I live in the country most beautiful in Africa
v. We wait the bus all the time
vi. Students are do their researches every semester
<div style="background-color: LightCyan">
<section id="one">
<h2>1. History and Functions of English in Nigeria</h2>
Chapter Six: Contrastive Analysis
6.1 Concept Defined
its implications and achievement in relation to mother tongue.
There should be a survey of the Phonological, Orthographical, Syntactic, Semantic, Morphological and Lexical differences between the Source Language (SL) and the Target Language (TL).
English
Phonological
Orthographical
Syntactic
Semantic
Morphological
Lexical
1. List any two of the assumptions for which contrastive analysis is said to predict all the errors in learner language. [10 marks each]
2. (a) State the two usefulness of contrastive analysis to language teaching and learning. [5 marks each]
(b) State the two types of motivation, and give example for each. [5 marks each]
i. Both the boys and the girls they can study together.
ii. She has understanding father.
iii. He goed home late
iv. I live in the country most beautiful in Africa
v. We wait the bus all the time
vi. I known the city of Cartagena there the weather is hot
(b) State and explain the two functions of error analysis. [9 marks each]
List five factors that affect the effective teaching and learning of the English in Nigeria
<div style="background-color: LightCyan">
<section id="one">
<h2>1. History and Functions of English in Nigeria</h2>
Chapter Seven: Motivation and Language Teaching/Learning
7.1 What is Motivation
7.2 Implication of Motivation for Language Teaching
7.3 Study Questions
<div style="background-color: LightCyan">
<section id="one">
<h2>1. History and Functions of English in Nigeria</h2>
<div>
<h2>REFERENCES</h2>
<ol>
<li>LAkmajian, Adrian; Demers, Richard A.; Farmer, Ann K.; and Harnish, Robert M. (2010). <i>Linguistics</i> (6th ed.). Massachusetts: MIT Press.</li>
<li>Crystal, David (1981). <i>Clinical Linguistics</i>. Wien: Springer-Verlag.</li>
<li>Olagunju, Olaoluwa. (nd). The Arrival of English into Nigeria and the Importance of Lagos to its Arrival.
Unpublished Manuscript. Retrieved from <a href= "https://www.academia.edu/24665792/THE_ARRIVAL_OF_ENGLISH_INTO_NIGERIA_AND_THE_IMPORTANCE_OF_LAGOS_TO_ITS_ARRIVAL
target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/24665792/THE_ARRIVAL_OF_ENGLISH_INTO_NIGERIA_AND_THE_IMPORTANCE_OF_LAGOS_TO_ITS_ARRIVAL.</a></li>
<li>Taiwo, Rotimi. (2009). The Functions of English in Nigeria from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. <i>English Today</i> 25(2): 3 – 10.</li>
</ol> </div>
<br><br><br><br><br>
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