benchmark.csv

id,text,sdg,label
bf90734,"Many people feel insecure in their homes and communities. One billion girls and boys ages 2-17 worldwide experienced physical, sexual or psychological violence in the prior year, according to one study.94 Some 25 percent of children suffer physical abuse, and nearly 20 percent of girls are sexually abused at least once in their life.95 Elder abuse remains a hidden problem:96 10 percent of older adults were abused in the prior month.97 Homicide is also a major social concern. Physical security and freedom from the threat of violence were particular concerns among female respondents (box 2.7). For women, real or perceived physical and emotional violence is a major barrier to meeting their full human potential and feeling free to move about.",1,False
88729bd,"The prevailing assumption in the public choice model that has served to underwrite so much of the policy in the past three decades is that the State is autonomous and free from corruptive private interests. From a historical perspective, it is clear that the State has never been a neutral instrument for good only, but has been the subject of power struggles. It is only out of such struggles that it has eventually emerged in the shape that we now use as the model of good governance. The destiny of the State has been determined by local stakeholders with an interest in improving governance.",1,False
5c55ba8,"They are also subject to an ecological relationship and affected by the interplay among the immediate environment, the community and society. Individuals may not automatically bounce back from what appears to be a transitory shock (hysteresis). For instance, a setback in early childhood can have serious ramifications throughout the rest of a person’s life, including the chances of holding onto a job, the uncertainties associated with growing older and the transmission of vulnerabilities to the next generation.",1,False
256ffa0,"Rafael Di Telia, Sebastian Edwards and Emesto Schargrodsky), University of Chicago Press. M. Bergsmo, C. Rodriguez-Garavito, P. Kalmanovitz and M.P. Saffon), Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, Oslo. Income Redistribution via Taxes and Transfers across Countries”, OECD Economics Department Working Paper, No.",1,False
04e9948,"The average supply of calories for food consumption of each country or region is normalized by the average dietary energy requirement estimated for its population in order to provide an index of adequacy of the food supply in terms of calories. Analysed together with the prevalence of undernourishment, it allows the determination of whether undernourishment is mainly due to the insufficiency of the food supply or to particularly poor distribution. Aggregate calculations: FAO Statistics Division (ESS).",1,False
ff71704,"For example, in 2011 the WHO-based report on ‘Women’s Lives and Family Relationships’8 reported that 60 per cent of women had been subjected to physical and/or sexual violence by husbands/partners in their lifetime, and for 90 per cent of these women the violence was severe. More than 1 in 4 women over the age of 15 years experienced physical violence by non-partners, 1 in 3 women experienced sexual abuse when they were under the age of 15 years and 2 in 5 women were forced into first sex. The study showed that acts of sexual violence caused injuries for many women (including loss of consciousness for 50%). One in 5 of those injured suffered permanent disability.",1,False
d653d97,"Particular thanks are due to Remy Pigois, Yves Dublin and Vincenzo Vinci from UNICEF and to Sarah Coll-Black and Colin Andrews (World Bank), as well as to the National Social Protection Platform of Ethiopia. Pamela Dale and Gaby Guerrero Serdan, also from UNICEF, also provided valuable guidance. These workshops were attended by representatives of the Government of Ethiopia, development partners and members of civil society.",1,False
2538f14,"This is a revised and updated version of the Working Paper published in January 2014 (April 20114). Requests to utilize larger portions or the full publication should be addressed to the Communication Unit at florence@unicef.org. Multiple Overlapping Deprivation Analysis for the European Union (EU-MODA): Technical Note, Innocenti Working Paper No.2014-01, UNICEF Office of Research, Florence. The prime objectives of the Office of Research are to improve international understanding of issues relating to children's rights and to help facilitate full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in developing, middle-income and industrialized countries. Through strengthening research partnerships with leading academic institutions and development networks in both the North and South, the Office seeks to leverage additional resources and influence in support of efforts towards policy reform in favour of children. For that reason, some publications may not necessarily reflect UNICEF policies or approaches on some topics.",1,False
04787d8,"The vast majority of households do not have the capacity to pay for such services. For households that do report care spending, the actual market demand expressed in monetary terms depends on total household income and on the range of needs they need, want and are able to meet. Spending on health care inside and outside the household was grouped together, showing that most of this spending goes on older persons in the household, the sick and persons with disabilities.",1,False
4afa7a4,"For the first time, clear targets have been set to end these evils, and the relationship between them and sustainable growth has been recognized. Put simply, ending child labour, slavery, trafficking and violence against children is directly tied to achieving most of the other development goals. However, what matters most is the will in the words, not the words in the will.",1,False
670cf75,"They have undertaken advocacy and awareness-raising activities among working people on issues related to gender equality. Some CSOs have also engaged in research and awareness-raising activities to enhance women's knowledge of their rights. In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the General Federation of Trade Unions of Korea undertakes advocacy and awareness-raising activities among workers on issues related to gender equality, and ensures that women's rights are guaranteed.",1,False
f3f788f,"In the case of poor families, this type of integration has been promoted fairly successfully through a number of co-responsibility transfer programmes (CTPs). This gives prominence to the pathways by which families and individuals reinforce their rights and their ability to access areas of contributory social protection or, where this is not possible, non-contributory social protection mechanisms to cover these needs with differentiated actions tailored to their profile. By being guaranteed for all citizens, these minimum levels are universal and establish a framework in which citizens not only demand and consume services, they are also holders and subjects of rights, with the capacity to demand that these rights be realized.",1,True
7b917f7,"Ill (LC/G.2488-P), Santiago, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Evidence from El Salvador's Comunidades Solidarias Rurales"", 1FPRI Discussion Paper, No. Version final"" [online] http://www.oportunidades.gob.mx/ EVALUACION/es/ docs/ docs2005.php. New York, Routledge/ United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD).",1,False
83a85fb,"Excluding pensions from the calculation of eligible family income, on the other hand, would increase the number of eligible beneficiaries by 46 per cent (Delarue and Nikaj, 2009). Eligible families are identified through a mix of community-based targeting and means testing. A commission chaired by the deputy-chairman of each district (hukumat) is responsible for the final selection of beneficiaries.",1,False
016d59b,"The lines for all five countries are essentially flat, which implies that there is very little systematic variation in rates of benefit receipt between calendar months. Any month-to-month fluctuations in benefit receipt observed in the monthly rates of benefit receipt for Sweden and Norway in the bottom-left panel represent ‘noise’, i.e. random variations, rather than seasonal effects. Figure 6 shows that 2-4% of working-age individuals in Latvia and Norway receive HB while the corresponding share is 3-6% in Germany and 8-10% in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.",1,False
b6ee209,"Where changes in the anchored poverty rate across the EU or the OECD are reported, it is usually only done for the overall population (Caritas Europa 2014, OECD 2014, Social Protection Committee 2014). The severe material deprivation indicator uses the threshold of four items out of nine. The only exceptions are Slovakia and Hungary, where severe deprivation increased to a greater extent than would have been (linearly) predicted based on their standard deprivation rates, and Ireland and Poland, where the reverse pattern was observed. However, as the child deprivation module is currently only available for one wave, it cannot be used to analyse the changes during the Great Recession. The absolute difference in the poverty change between children and the overall population is then used as an indicator of how much poorer children have become over the course of the Great Recession compared to the population as a whole.",1,True
53ad518,"In this case, the evidence shows that the proposed index is extremely robust to changes in these parameters. When all k values between 10% and 70% were considered, 93% of all possible comparisons between pairs of observations were robust.3 When k values were restricted to a range of between 20% and 40%, the percentage of robust comparisons rose to 98%. The Kendall coefficient for k values between 10% and 70% varies between 0.89 and 0.99, while the Spearman coefficient ranges between 0.98 and 0.99.",1,False
042dd99,"In other words, a broad reduction in child poverty is to be expected here, not so much from an increase in the employment rate, but from an improvement in the quality of the jobs occupied by parents and/or better compensation by the redistributive system for the penalty weighing on the poverty rate. A sharp decrease in poverty rates can also be expected from a reduction in the child penalty bom by single-parents in many countries (Austria, Belgium, Chili, the Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Portugal, Sweden, Tukey and the United States) where the lowest poverty rates among single parents occur when the poverty rate for single parents is the same for childless singles (Table 5). In fact, for France and Japan the lowest overall family poverty rate occurs when the poverty rate for single parents and childless singles are the same (Table 4 Column 6).",1,True
9745fb1,"To do this, in the calculations and analysis carried out in this document (unless otherwise specified) the Centre region should be understood as “the Centre region excluding Yaounde” and the Littoral region as the “Littoral region excluding Douala.” In the ECAM survey, urban areas include cities with at least 50 000 inhabitants, all other localities are considered as rural. According to this logic, 36.24% of Cameroonians were urban in 2007 across the entire population, while this figure was 30.7% for children aged 0 to 14. In the general census, however, any town with over 5000 inhabitants and all towns which were the administrative centre for a county were considered as a city.",1,False
7496d6e,"The highest figures correspond to the northern, north-eastern and central-western regions of the country. The settlement of these areas, especially the zones along the southern and eastern borders of the Amazon jungle, is quite recent, and the production of agricultural commodities for export in these areas is steadily increasing, but the cities in these zones are still not fully developed. The variables associated with the greatest deprivation have to do with urban services (running water, sewerage systems and systems for the disposal of household waste, etc.).",1,False
a92a39b,"The extension of income data at sub-national level is part of the OECD work on advancing the measurement agenda of wellbeing to regions and cities (see http://www.oecd.org/regional/how-is-life-in-your-region.htm). Income-based measures of poverty at regional level are a first step towards more encompassing metrics of deprivation that include non-monetary measures. High disparities between regions can undermine national economic growth, leading to inequality of opportunities and creating social tensions that in turn may sustain regional imbalances over time (OECD, 2011b).",1,True
961f807,"Increases in house prices slowed down around the period of the financial crisis, but then price inflation went back to its pre-crisis level. Overall, house prices in household income increased sharply, and after falling around 2008, the house price to rent ratio returned to rising sharply. Recently, house prices declined in energy-producing regions, continued to rise strongly in Vancouver and Toronto, and have risen modestly elsewhere. In this context, the purchase of real estate often becomes unaffordable for low-income families who, as it will be seen in the next section, are increasingly likely to rent their homes. The standardised price-rent and price-income ratios show the current price-rent and price-income ratios relative to their respective long-term averages.",1,False
100de96,"However, the stimulus that these policies provide are very small at the macroeconomic level, and are far from fully counteracting the crisis’ negative effects on real GDP growth (figure 13). The policy of cash transfers appears to be the least effective in this sense, although its results are not enormously different from those produced by the VAT reduction policy or elimination of customs tariffs on food products. These results are consistent with expectations at the macroeconomic level, indeed, if the simulated policies can provide a rapid response to the socioeconomic harm of the crisis, their effects are only transitory and, as a consequence, are not sustained enough to address alone concerns about economic recovery. To effectively boost growth, specific policies would have to be implemented to encourage accumulation and efficient use of production factors, along with improved productivity. However, measures which flow from such policies are not generally applied immediately and cannot be seen as rapid responses in cases of exogenous shocks.",1,False
71a98fb,"Indeed, there is no guarantee that results on the capacity of a social programme to reduce poverty by a given amount will translate to another country if the poverty line is set in a different way. We propose that this line be set at a multiple of median income, which makes the poverty line sensitive to the distribution of welfare in the country, rather than being solely determined by the mean of the welfare metric used. This relative poverty line can fruitfully be used alongside an absolute poverty line, which we set at the level of the international dollar-a-day poverty line. Considering that the international 1.25 dollar-a-day poverty line sets a minimum income for fulfilling survival needs, the 1.25 dollar-a-day line may appear more relevant when the relative poverty line falls below this level.",1,True
2c91406,"In the Netherlands and Luxembourg, by contrast, median spell durations tend to be very long (9 and 15 months, respectively) but benefit leavers are unlikely to return to benefits. In Norway and Sweden, a very small minority (2% and 4%) of recipients stay on benefits for extended periods of time of more than 24 months. In Luxembourg, the majority of spells also last shorter than 2 years, but longer spell durations beyond 2 years are much more common here (38%).",1,False
5134580,"The gains are realised when the owner sells the asset and cashes in the gains. Smeeding and Moon (1980) have compared alternative methods for the evaluation of a set of services, finding negligible differences between the cost of production and more subjective metrics such as the utility value. See OECD website, “Going social: the great tax-benefit balancing act” on wages and benefits indicators, wwuj.oecd.org/els/bene/itsandujagesoecdmdicators.htm.",1,False
4e5ca24,"Section 5 concludes discussing the statistical agenda to extend this work. The indicators rely on the most suitable data source available in each country, with the selection of sources generally decided in consultation with national authorities. Data and indicators are collected through a network of national consultants who provide standard tabulations based on comparable definitions and methodological approaches.",1,False
875d3f2,"From 1990 to 2015, more than 1 billion people were lifted out of extreme poverty. Achieving SDG 1, however, will nonetheless not be easy. Over 700 million people continue to battle extreme poverty, living on less than $1.90 per day. The world population continues to grow. Poverty eradication efforts will demand we reach communities alienated within current development pathways because they lack productive capacities, live in remote areas without access to services or face discrimination. Many people who escape income poverty may remain relatively poor in their local context or face deprivations in health, education and shelter.",1,True
677c4a6,"In terms of the hungriest, 16.1 per cent are found to be ultra hungry in Bangladesh, with 15.9 per cent in rural areas and 17.1 per cent in urban areas. In Lao PDR, the share is 16.1 per cent, with 10.7 per cent in rural areas and 31.4 per cent in urban areas. In Timor-Leste, the figure is 25.0 per cent, with 25.0 per cent in rural areas and 25.2 per cent in urban areas.",1,False
09e9be6,"The impact analysis found that members of the health insurance system were more likely to seek treatment in health facilities rather than to self-treat (Jowett, 2001). And the Early Intervention Programme of Belarus is one of the best practices for children with special needs in the CEE/CIS region. Due to this programme, access for children with special needs to quality early intervention health services has increased. Between 2003 and 2008 the programme produced a 20 per cent increase in the number of children under 8 years benefiting from appropriate care and feeding practices for their survival, growth and development, including early identification of children with special needs (UNICEF, 2011b).",1,False
5852de8,"One reason why researchers have not fitted higher-order Markov models more frequently may be that researchers may not be aware that it is possible to fit such models using readily-available software. Second, higher-order models require long runs of panel data and these data may not always be available. One might argue that first-order DREP models are sufficient to capture the key distinction between heterogeneity and state dependence as determinants of SA receipt histories - note e.g. the relative unimportance of second- and third-order lags cited earlier - but the veracity of this case has not been rigorously scrutinised. An additional complication arises from the fact that approaches for dealing with the initial conditions problem need to be adjusted when higher-order lags are added to the DREP model.",1,False
a081a73,"The costs of not taking the opportunity will undoubtedly be even higher. Children need to be supported and protected from avoidable ‘falling behind’ at all stages of their development, but the point of greatest leverage is the point at which the process begins. In this sense the metric used -the degree of bottom-end inequality in child well-being — is a measure of the progress being made towards a fairer society.",1,False
60c8a98,"The analysis summarises and extends recent country studies on the dynamics of SA receipt for Norway (Bhuller & Konigs, 2011, Bhuller, Brinch & Konigs, 2014), Luxembourg (Konigs, 2012), and the Netherlands (Konigs, 2013). In addition, it presents previously unpublished results for Sweden. The results for Latvia are taken from findings of a World Bank study (World Bank, 2013) in which two of the authors were involved.",1,False
d18491b,"Almost no country has been completely spared by the crisis, however, some economically advanced countries have been hit more severely, while others have been more resilient. Indeed, the growth performance of rich countries during the Great Recession has been heterogeneous. Similarly to other countries, they experienced a sustained increase of demand in the years before the crisis, which pushed up asset prices and private debt. Yet the lack of stringent supervision and easy access to credit fueled a speculative bubble that led to bank failures, large fiscal deficits and increasing fiscal vulnerability. Since they were not able to face the negative consequences of the crisis, they asked for external support from IMF/EU/ECB and quickly accepted a process of fiscal adjustment.",1,False
b95e372,"It is calculated using the number of deprivations that the multidimensionally deprived children encounter, divided by the maximum number of dimensions considered, showing the average number of deprivations the deprived children experience. The child population per country is calculated multiplying the total population size in 2012 (retrieved from the World Bank Databank, Oct 2014) with the percentage of children as a share of the total population of each country (derived by authors' calculations based on DHS/MICS data, see Annexes 1 and 2). In 2012 these countries represented 78% of the total population of sub-Saharan Africa (and 10% of the world's population).",1,True
6bd5482,"Within this context, the quality of government institutions decreased. Non-formal primary education has been introduced with the aim of providing primary educational services for children outside formal institutions in rural areas of the country. There are no large differences to the formal school curriculum while classes are composed of about 30 pupils (almost half respect to formal schools). At the beginning, 22 experimental non-formal primary education centres were established.",1,False
c2ac6ae,"But practically, we know that we will need to consider a number of possible trade-offs when selecting the best indicator among a set of possible indicators. The best measures may not be collected frequently to allow yearly comparisons. Our desire for longer time series rather than single measurements may be compromised if the measure changes substantially from one year to the next.",1,False
b09051f,"In most countries, household income also includes an imputed rental value for owner-occupied dwellings. For Brazil, this study has used the indigence lines estimated by the Brazilian Geographical and Statistical Institute (IBGEI. For Colombia, the thresholds proposed by the Colombian Mission for the Linkage of Employment.",1,False
c2d176c,"It was found that 85% of all possible comparisons between pairs of observations were robust to these 98 variants. When the alternatives were restricted to a narrower range of three k values, 20%, 30% and 40%, the proportion of robust pairs of combinations rose to 91 %. » It was found that 84% of all possible comparisons between pairs of observations were robust to these 196 variants. When the alternatives were restricted to a narrower range of three k values, 20%, 30% and 40%, the proportion of robust pairs of combinations rose to 90%. It was found that 81 % of all possible pairs of comparisons were robust. When the alternatives were restricted to a narrower range of three k values, 20%, 30% and 40%, the proportion of robust pairs of combinations rose to 88%.",1,False
24e1182,"Up to December 2006, the same factor was applied to both lines. Since 2007, however, the indigence line has been adjusted to reflect changes in the food CPI, whereas the part of the poverty line that corresponds to non-food spending is adjusted by the relevant CPI. Since 2007, therefore, the differential between the indigence and poverty lines has ceased to be constant. In line with usual ECLAC practice, the data have been corrected to account for non-response to some income-related questions by wage earners, the self-employed and retirees, and to mitigate probable underreporting biases.",1,True
ddff4bd,"This calls for including care in the economic analysis (care as the ""shadow of work”), understanding its relationship to gender oppression and recognizing its value as a meaningful activity and a responsibility of citizenship. El cuidado como eje de politicas y de actores en America Latina"", Seminarios y Conferencias series. Just for the sake of setting a cut-off age, there is no question that beyond the age of 80 the fragility- rate is high, independence is inconsistent and there is a risk of functional loss.",1,False
7070ff2,"On the other hand, inequality-poverty elasticity may be higher or lower than zero.' This means that poverty changes may result both from economic growth (typified by the increase of average income) and from a decline in income inequality. However, the poverty reduction effect is much stronger when both factors combine. The arithmetic average of this variable is then established and average income values thus obtained for the states in the sample.",1,True
9141f05,"Indeed, the most common health problems in China today relate to tobacco use, blood pressure and obesity, which are not typical of poor populations. In 2000, the average life expectancy of rural residents was 69.6 years, 8 per cent lower than the average for urban residents of 75.2 years. Maternal mortality in rural areas in 2006 was nearly double that in urban China, at 45-5 per 100,000 live births compared to 24.8.",1,False
19b3ea9,"Andrew Barker from the OECD Canadian desk is also deeply thanked for his valuable comments. First, trends in child poverty and living standards since 2007, i.e. one year before the onset of the Great Recession, are described. An overview of children's material deprivation and of key indicators of child well-being is also provided. The paper discusses the observed poverty trends in relation to policies implemented to combat it by federal authorities.",1,True
de72a45,"For example, in the United States, Burtless (2009) reports that changes in the population’s age structure, living arrangements and ethnic mix contributed only a small share of the rise in inequality between 1979 and 2004: only around 15% of the overall rise in inequality was explained by demographic change with the rise in single-adult households (rather than the ageing population) being the more important contributor. In the United Kingdom, Jenkins (1995) too finds household structures had little influence on the growth in household inequality in the 1980s. Across countries, differences in family structure also do little to explain cross-country differences in poverty rates or inequality (Jantti, 1997, Pasqua, 2008, Harkness, 2010).",1,True
8356966,"El Salvador, Paraguay and Uruguay, several of which showed the largest gains in this source, reported increases both in average income per recipient and in coverage. In the other countries, the outcome resulted from a rise in one factor combined with a fall in the other (see figure 11.8). Within this framework, it is possible to analyse different combinations of inequality reduction and average income growth that could produce a particular poverty rate, and then assess whether those conditions are in line with the trends observed in recent years. Goal 1 is to end poverty in all its forms everywhere and sets targets for achieving that. Target 1.1 is to eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere by 2030.",1,True
06ade9d,"The technical work to select suitable indicators for the new targets was done by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Millennium Development Goal Indicators. The framework will be used to report annually to the General Assembly and is expected to serve to monitor the MDGs in all official matters. It contains 21 targets and 60 indicators that have been renumbered sequentially according to the respective goals and targets.b In addition, several targets and indicators were eliminated and others reformulated.",1,False
95a0b06,"The selected deprivation indicators and countries are the percentage of children under 18 experiencing housing deprivation in Costa Rica and the percentage of children under 18 experiencing drinking-water-related deprivation in the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela. At the same time, when only national data are available, it is very difficult to target policies for reducing existing social inequities because social programmes struggle to generate a positive impact on extremely poor children in localized areas. The measurement of housing deprivation is presented for Costa Rica, based on a threshold of overcrowding (three or more people per room, excluding the bathroom and kitchen), mud flooring or unsafe construction materials, such as ceilings or exterior walls made from mud, waste materials or similar.",1,True
1cf90d9,"Such workers send about half their monthly wages to families back home, typically supporting four or five family members. Remittances are used to pay for food, healthcare and education, significantly reducing the incidence of extreme poverty (Neak and Yem, 2006). This industry can easily be relocated to other countries, and there are limited job opportunities in other areas of the formal sector for the unskilled.",1,True
87bd4a0,"However, in relative terms, the proportion of people living in extreme poverty has been declining since 1990 in both the heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC) and in the least developed countries. However, the numbers of people living in extreme poverty have been on the decline since the early 1990s. Small island developing States will also have to redouble their efforts, given the slackened pace of poverty reduction they experienced between 1999 and 2005, which was considerably slower than that experienced between 1990 and 1999.",1,True
418d18a,"However, these child poverty data are available for fewer countries and for a shorter period of time than those based on the conventional floating poverty line (for most countries the 2005 “anchored” poverty rates are available from year 2005 onwards). For most countries, these data on trends in the anchored poverty rate have been available since 2005 or a year later, but some countries (Canada, France and the United Kingdom) have longer data series. Variations in anchored poverty rates are more heterogeneous across countries and for many countries larger than for the relative poverty rate (Figure 5).",1,True
853a687,"This is particularly the case in countries where the level of social spending is comparatively low (as for instance in Greece and Mexico) and/or where support already targets poor families (as, for instance, in Belgium and Slovenia). To reduce poverty effectively, a redistribution of benefits also involves correcting the ""losses"" of income that can be induced by interactions between different benefits and/or with tax rules (Bradshaw et al., In addition, while a redistribution of child benefit and/or housing benefit may provide a greater income to the poorest children, it should be accompanied by a reinforcement of measures enabling parents to take up a job and reconcile work and family life in the more or less short term so that such a redistribution is not a factor discouraging work.",1,True
f813903,"Moreover, progress between 1990 and 2005 was worse for LDCs than for developing countries as a whole, with 6 out of 10 importers seeing their Pll for LDCs decline during this period. Among the ten importers the share of their total Pll accounted for by LDCs was less than one-twentieth, at only 3.7 cents of every dollar to the poor via trade going towards those within LDCs. Australia was the lowest at 0.7% (0.7 cents per dollar to the poor via trade) and the European Union the highest at 7.1% (7.1 cents). The first is a measure of the share of national income going towards those within these poverty groups below the $1.25 and $2.00 per day level, which are denoted as SIP1 and SIP2 (share of income to the poor). These are calculated based on the surveys and income distribution data used previously. The second dataset provides the share of import-value these 89 countries account for in 10 developed economies (with the EU as a single block), using the IMF’s Direction of Trade database.",1,True
425ca19,"Less than 11% of pupils attending public schools are entitled to a full teaching day, compared with 46% for those attending private schools (Barrera et al., Since private schools cover predominantly pupils from well-off families (and more so in Colombia than in many other countries, OECD, 2012c), many pupils face a double liability of coming from a disadvantaged background and attending a lower-quality school. Second, the poor selection and training of teachers affect education quality.",1,False
8eeecec,"Others see it narrowly in terms of its potential efficiency effects. Although participation is meant to operate on democratic principles and to involve and benefit all sections of the community, institutions which seem participatory and inclusive in formal terms can effectively exclude significant sections, especially the poor and women. These “participatory exclusions”61 can, in turn, unfavourably affect both equity and institutional efficiency.",1,False
781d9dc,"Usually the deprivation cut-off is completion of primary education, but people in Latin America now require a level of education far beyond primary school to have a good chance of escaping income poverty (Villatoro, 2007). The cut-off used here for persons aged between 20 and 59 years is completion of lower-secondary education, while that for those of 60 years or over remains completion of primary school. However, household surveys in the region do not currently include indicators of cognitive skills for either children of school age or adults. Naturally, any comprehensive measurement of poverty requires data on other aspects.",1,True
fc7d9f8,"Strictly speaking, weighting is relevant only for the definition of the basket of goods and services used to set the poverty line. The aggregation of the minimum basket of goods is done by accumulating the monetary value of each of the items within the selected basket of goods. The aggregation of a household's resources is done either by accumulating the household members' income from all (or most) sources, or by accumulating the monetary value (price) of each of the items/services bought or consumed by the household.",1,True
77e14ec,"The state-led welfare and social protection system is limited in PICs, where there has been a heavy reliance on traditional, informal and non-state social protection systems which are provided through extended family, kinship, and community. The aim of the paper is to examine the nature of traditional, informal and semi-formal social security and protection mechanisms within PICs, to explore the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society organizations (CSOs) in providing social security and safety nets and to aid in enhancing social development in PICs. Social protection is a fundamental issue in promoting social and human development and reducing risks and vulnerabilities. It is an agenda primarily designed for reducing vulnerability and managing risks of individuals, households and communities.",1,True
b4cdbde,"However, once total social spending and working-age unemployment were accounted for, the effects of the minimum income protection indicator were no longer statistically significant. Social spending was associated with lower risks of child poverty at the start of the crisis only, when many European countries implemented fiscal stimulus packages, while unemployment had large effects on both poverty and deprivation throughout the entire period 2008-2012. This suggests that social safety nets and social spending did not shield children from the effects of labour market turbulence during the Great Recession.",1,True
53fcd09,"Moreover, the rents needed to fund technical change can equally come from the effective protection of intellectual property rights. A recent OECD publication, “Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth 2007” (OECD, 2007e), finds that stronger competition has particularly powerful effects on productivity in countries far away from the technological frontier, reflecting stronger incentives to adopt new technologies. Finally, Bigsten et al. ( Particularly where trade is accompanied by foreign direct investment, it is likely to promote the transfer of skills and of innovation. Beyond this direct transfer of technology embodied in trade, or as spillovers from trade (Nordas et al., As the experiences of newly industrialised economies in Asia has demonstrated from the 1960s through to the 1990s, latecomers can - with the right preconditions and determinants - take advantage of the newest technological development and simply buy technology for their own industrial development at a relatively lower cost and less risk4 (Lin, 2007, UNIDO, 2007).",1,False
3850b29,"Other complementary factors—most importantly a recipient's entrepreneurial skills—are crucial for making credit more productive. Most poor people do not have the basic education or experience to understand and conduct even low-level business activities. The corresponding shares in Pakistan and Sri Lanka are about 70 and 40 per cent. There is no one single solution to global poverty. The solution must include a broad array of empowering interventions and microfinance, when targeted to the very poor and effectively run, is one powerful tool (Daley-Harris, Pollin and Montgomery, 2007, p. 1).",1,True
00352ba,"While developing countries remain weakly integrated into international capital markets compared to emerging economies, the crisis could compromise the momentum achieved by a number of growing African countries in terms of mobilizing foreign capital (Griffith-Jones and Ocampo 2009). Countries that rely heavily on FDI may therefore be more at risk than others (Willem te Velde 2008). However, a World Bank review of studies on previous economic crises points out that capital transfers and investments -particularly FDI - are less stable than exchange in goods and services or remittances (World Bank 2008).",1,False
e0bbd16,"One trend dominates in particular: the relative gain in income (+13%) for children whose parents own the home compared to poor families who rent their homes but who otherwise share the same characteristics (Annex B). Declines in home ownership tend to push the standard of living down. The proportion of poor children in a two-parent family renting a dwelling increased sharply, from 36% in 2007 to 50% in 2014.",1,True
3eedd76,"The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement established stronger and more universal standards of intellectual property protection, but many developing countries lack the ability to make effective use of intellectual property rules as a tool of development, or to mitigate its disadvantages. Space should be given for developing countries to adopt the system of intellectual property protection that best suits their development needs. A major challenge for developing countries, especially the smaller and poorer ones, is the diversity and complexity of the international intellectual property right (IPR) architecture and the multiplicity of negotiating forums.",1,False
6904a99,"Poverty will rise among households depending on remittances7 and those employed in sectors such as construction (World Bank 2010b). These direct effects are followed by second order effects when families may be forced to reduce their investments in health and education as a response to lower purchasing power. An economic shock may also lead to social unrest, disrupt community and inter-ethnic relations or even bring down fragile governments (World Bank 2010b, Slay 2011).",1,True
fd52be5,Low Carbon Green Growth Roadmap for Asia and the Pacific: Turning Resource Constraints and the Climate Crisis into Economic Growth Opportunities. Available from www.unescap.org/esd/publications/ environment/lcgg-roadmap/Roadmap_FINAL_l 5_6_12.pdf. Available from www.un.org/millennium goals/reports.shtml.,1,False
44ff711,"The main addition to the UNICEF approach is active labour market interventions, such as skills-building and job matching. However, ILO considers both social protection and social security as largely interchangeable concepts (ILO 2017:194-5). Social security is a human right and it aims to reduce and prevent poverty, vulnerability and social exclusion throughout the life cycle. Social protection floors constitute the most innovative contribution of the ILO approach. They are nationally defined sets of basic social security guarantees - in terms of both essential health care and basic income security for children, adults and older persons - that ensure, as a minimum, that, over the life cycle, all in need have access to goods and services defined as necessary at the national level (ILO 2012). The framework also outlines urban-specific vulnerabilities to be considered and identifies some key issues in urban areas such as targeting and transfer size.",1,True
c3cb01d,"In contrast, the assumption of import price recovery in 2010 exacerbates the impact of the global economic crisis in Ghana, which has the highest import penetration rate. The recovery in import and export prices in 2010 is beneficial to economic growth in Cameroon because of its initial trade surplus. Hence factor prices follow their non-crisis trends as early as 2010 in this country, although at lower levels.",1,False
c7051e0,"The financial crisis in the United States is affecting —and will continue to affect— the growth of exports and the remittance flows the region has benefited from in recent years. Some current features of the Latin American economies, such as their lesser external vulnerability, greater fiscal solvency and high levels of reserve, should make it possible to implement countercyclical policies to mitigate the effect of external developments on the region’s performance. Nonetheless, although it is better prepared to cope with this international situation than in the past, one should not assume that Latin America and the Caribbean is immune to the changes that are taking place, and trends in the second half of 2008 and in 2009 will reflect developments in the current setting.",1,False
f5398c3,"Post-2015, there will be a need for substantial increases in the concessional resource flows to low-income and lower-middle income countries, on a stable and predictable basis, to support productive investment and the provision of public goods. The 2005 Paris Declaration and the subsequent Accra Agenda for Action in 2008, along with the Busan Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation in 2011, are the clearest results of those efforts. Although not yet fully implemented, these agreements imply a certain rebalancing of the relationships between partners and donors.",1,False
a8fc644,"For the purposes of the SHI scheme, “formal sector” refers to enterprises that employ more than ten individuals, a definition which excludes a large proportion of the population. Total expenditure increased steadily from ETB 0.1 million in 2012/13 to ETB 47.9 million in 2015/16. Management and administration initially accounted for the majority of expenditure but the system development’s share of spending increased after 2014/15 and accounted for over 57% of total SHI expenditure in 2015/16.",1,False
0efdc81,"The Innocenti Research Centre (formally known as the International Child Development Centre) generates knowledge and analysis to support policy formulation and advocacy in favour of children, acts as a convener and catalyst for knowledge exchange and strategic reflections on children’s concerns, and supports programme development and capacity-building. The Centre’s publications represent contributions to a global debate on child rights issues, and include a range of opinions. For that reason, the Centre may produce publications that do not necessarily reflect UNICEF policies or approaches on some topics.",1,False
2b281f7,"They differ from the usual ones employed by trade modellers of developing country policies in that they are based on direct domestic-to-border price comparisons rather than (as with the GTAP dataset) on applied rates of import tariffs and other key border measures. A first attempt to exploit that new database was recently undertaken to assess the relative impacts on national, regional and global poverty as well as inequality of agricultural and non-agricultural trade policies at home and abroad. This chapter summarizes some of the working papers that have emerged from that research project (see www.worldbank.org/ agdistortions).",1,False
ce9244d,"Rather, what is needed is a set of marketing policies and institutions that connect farmers to markets by reducing their marketing costs and risks (IFPRI, 2007). Similarly, this analysis strongly confirms the importance of better market integration and investment in rural infrastructure to help reduce transport and energy costs thereby better transmitting the opportunities created by market opening to those regions. Today, food and other agricultural products are sourced globally as much as manufactured products and the expanding markets for agro-food products are opening up new opportunities for developing countries (see Box 4). Participation in regional or global agro-food value chains allows developing country producers to overcome the limits imposed by their small domestic markets. It provides them access to more vibrant markets, allowing them to upgrade their production processes and improve the quality and value-added of their products. Although the strong growth performance of recent years has been mainly attributed to Zambia’s booming mining sector (copper is the country’s single largest foreign exchange earner), agriculture is the most dynamic component of Zambia’s export economy and is the main driver of export diversification.",1,False
971093f,"Investments in education help to reduce the intergenerational transmission of poverty. Although the share of the people who are educated varies greatly among the Asia Pacific LDCs, for both women and men, the poorest are less likely to be educated. The gender gap is also considerable. The differences in educational attainment between the ultra poor and the subjacent poor are large, with the poorest the least educated.",1,True
7c4f9e7,"The stigma attached to transgender people, men who have sex with men, and sex workers has resulted in their social exclusion (Winter, 2012). In South and South-West Asia, transgender people in particular lack recognition. Being held in low esteem, they find it difficult to pursue education, enter a profession or set up a business.",1,False
c20c4e6,"Societies will have to adjust to increasing proportions of older persons in their population. In this regard, in developed countries, concerns about rising costs of health care (partially related to ageing) and viability of pension systems are already at the centre of policy debates. In many developing countries, population ageing is occurring in an accelerated fashion and life expectancy has risen considerably.",1,False
c67a53a,"She would also like to thank the guest bloggers and other contributors to the SWAC @ Expo Milano website who engaged in discussions on the state and prospect of women's empowerment and gender equality in West Africa over several months, sharing their ideas and experiences and raising challenging questions. She has conducted research, co-ordinated policy analysis and published on gender, migration, conflict, peace and security, land reform and regional integration issues. She has also designed and co-ordinated the implementation of human resources and organisational development-related projects and processes in the areas of: job evaluation, organisational design, diversity and change management. Previous roles include: UNV Programme Officer at the UNDP Senegal Office, Policy Analyst at the Sahel and West Africa Club Secretariat of the OECD, and Human Resources Manager and OD Consultant at the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).",2,False
b025534,"A gendered approach to environmental assessment also examines the ways environments and environmental relationships shape, create and sustain gender norms. What are the social costs and consequences of differential gendered environmental relationships? And what is the dynamic relationship between environmental conditions and changes and gender inequality?",2,False
dfd9df8,"However, line ministries have greater influence in setting NTBs. They are generally more protectionist and influenced by interest groups. Hence trade policy is a continuous battleground, and a change of key ministerial personalities can easily result in a more protectionist trade policy regime. This is the crux of Indonesia’s trade policy challenge: no minister or agency has control over the full array of trade policy instruments, and is able to adopt an economy-wide public interest viewpoint.",2,False
dd46458,"The main change is due to the need to allocate programmes under Inspection Services and Marketing and promotion into new sub-categories. In particular the inspection and control programmes implemented by the inspection agency SENASICA include inspection, pest and diseases and input components. Good budgetary information for the allocation of this expenditure to different sub-categories was not available and allocation was provisionally done in equal amounts. New information is being collected with the view of improving this allocation in the next monitoring cycle.",2,False
173e097,"The ability to monitor progress at the school level in a comparable manner was a major achievement and was very helpful in linking funding with performance improvements of the education system. Another important direction was the substantial increase in conditional cash transfer programme Bolsa Familia (initially, Bolsa Escuola) which created both incentives and the means for poor parents to send their children to school (De Mello and Hoppe, 2005, OECD, 2011). This has recently received much attention, with enrolment in vocational training more than doubling since the early 2000s.",2,False
1c85092,"The regional average dependency ratio (i.e. the ratio of people younger than 15 to the working-age population in the 15-64 year range) totalled 74.7% (UNFPA, 2015). An ever increasing and younger population is a distinctive feature of West Africa: the total population is projected to almost double and approach 600 million by 2050 (OECD/SWAC, 2013). From 1950 to 2010, the percentage of urban dwellers increased from 9% to 41% and this figure is projected to soar to 67% by 2050 (Moriconi-Ebrard, Harre and Heinrigs, 2016, OECD/SWAC, 2013). Urban growth concerns old and new towns, larger cities and smaller and rural centres alike (Ibidem).",2,False
94a41e8,"In many developing countries, a significant number of poor families face poverty, hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition, which intensify with adverse biophysical growing conditions and poor socio-economic infrastructure (Wani, etal., Crop production, which is vital to global food security, is already being affected by climate change, more so in impoverished communities. It has been predicted that over the next decades, billions of people, especially those living in developing countries, will face water and food shortages, and greater risks to health and life because of climate change.",2,True
7a3dad7,"These searchable on-line databases and their annual reporting summaries are valuable tools for federal and state science managers and scientists. In addition, CRIS has been a critical resource for retrospective assessments of the economic impacts of agricultural research. Using data that measure research resource flows to specific subject areas and specific geographic areas, and linking them to subsequent changes in farm productivity, economists have been able to conduct cost-benefit analysis of public investments in agricultural research. A summary of the findings from these studies is given in Chapter 7.",2,True
2643513,"This is where measures such as compensation and adjustment assistance come into play. This is sometimes interpreted (if not criticised) as an ideological position representing the entrenched philosophy of economic liberalism (or neoliberalism). Yet, there are very good practical reasons behind that principle. Three thoughts are particularly relevant.",2,False
1104b2e,"Such scenarios may constitute “extreme events”, with a low probability but severe consequences if the event happens. A more likely scenario is that a particular trading partner may block or impede trade temporarily, with implications for the prices that an importing country is obliged to pay. For example, India cut off rice exports to Bangladesh in 2007 in order to lower prices on its domestic market (Dorosh and Rashid, 2012).",2,True
0ee3e6e,"Obligations to partners within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance had to be met before product could be sold to the convertible currency area. Imports had to proceed through an extensive system of quotas and licenses. Additionally, Viet Nam faced a trade embargo with the United States that was only lifted in 1994 (McCaig and Pavcnik, 2013). Permission for private as well as SOEs to establish direct links with foreign markets was given in 1991.",2,False
952557a,"These figures most likely underestimate the contribution of off-farm earnings because they capture only the income coming from activities integrated from the accounting standpoint either fully or partly within the farm business. However, studies on rural diversification indicate that the majority of alternative enterprises of agricultural households are financially and structurally independent of the farm business (OECD, 2009e). For example, around 20% of living expenses of those households involved in dairying and sheep and beef farming originate from off-farm income (MAF, 2009e).",2,True
db7df05,"On the other hand, others such as P. Veltz see the territorial result of post-Ford ist regulation modes combining the uncertainty of the economic situation and flexibility of the job market. Californian geographers such as A. Scott or M. Dear insist on relations between functional and social mutations of very large cities and new forms of urban territoriality."" Both are independent of the level of urbanisation of the territory considered. Table 3.2 presents the indices for Togo and Nigeria. In Togo, Lome was the primate city for the years 1950, 1970 and 2010. In Nigeria, Ibadan held this position in 1950 and 1960, and since then Lagos.",2,False
57bd677,"Binding biofuel mandates also risks to increase price volatility on agricultural world markets. International trade in ethanol is subject to significant import tariffs, and climate-related standards are already in use on some biofuels and may become increasingly important in the future. In order not to act as trade barriers that discriminate between domestic and foreign products the development and application of internationally harmonised standards warrants close attention.",2,True
c6c5cc2,"The government’s efforts to develop modern large-scale production should be complemented by the efforts to integrate small-scale producers into agricultural markets as well as to diversify rural incomes. Large state agencies operate on the grain, machinery leasing, and agricultural credit markets. Their primary function is to implement support programmes, but they are also empowered to undertake commercial operations and as such enjoy substantial market power.",2,True
29052e3,"Credit resources could be re-directed to support long-term investment and increasingly allocated to well-specified innovation, environmental, and infrastructure projects. Consider a gradual downsizing of concessional loans for working capital to commercial producers. Enhance criteria for loan eligibility to better screen out borrowers that would have invested without support.",2,False
ee3ae41,"However, the CAP 2014-20 offers more flexibility to member states to re-introduce commodity-specific and output-linked measures. A better alternative would be for member states to focus support on measures to improve the long-term productivity, profitability, sustainability and competitiveness of the sector. The ""Plan to Create Vitality for Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Industries and Local Communities” aims at revitalising the agricultural sector in view of significant drops in output and farming incomes over the past two decades.",2,True
ab1668f,"Special thanks go to Thomas Chalaux and Clara Garcia for statistical support and Nadine Dufour and Mercedes Burgos for editorial assistance. The scale of the ongoing transition is highlighted by government plans to grant urban residential status to 100 million rural migrants by 2020. This structural adjustment process can deliver substantial opportunities for the rural economy and China as a whole, but entails major challenges calling for continued reform efforts.",2,False
2da6535,"That role includes funding for research and development, but it also includes the design of a balanced system of intellectual property rights. This report shows that across all countries covered in this report expenditures on research and development represent a relatively small share in the transfers to the agricultural sector. Increased public and private investment in research and development, including extension and advisory services, could be targeted to increase productivity growth and address challenges associated with climate change and improved management of soil and water resources.",2,True
04ec066,"The rebound in growth is expected to be more rapid in the developing countries and initially tepid and fragile in the OECD area and involving a longer transition period. Once the transition to sustainable gains is reached, the EU and US economies are expected to grow by 2% and 2.5% per annum, respectively to 2019, and with faster growth in some other OECD countries such as Korea, Turkey and Australia. Among the developing countries, the leading Asian economies have fared better than most and lead the world economic recovery.",2,False
5983e79,"In 2011, a federal programme PRONATEC was launched and now covers 8 million students. Since 2013, it includes a component targeted to rural youngsters: PRONATEC Countryside. For example, in university education, the number of agricultural courses for bachelor degrees reached 830 in 2011, a six-fold increase over 1991, which covers only full-time studies, and does not include distance courses or MBAs (Table 5.1).",2,False
29943f8,"Finally, New Zealand witnessed rising MPS, but from a very low level and almost entirely due to falling poultry world prices in combination with an appreciation of the currency relative to the US dollar. Per cent changes of nominal values expressed in national currency. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.",2,False
a1ec672,"Through increasing market size, suitable infrastructure may also promote competition and the adoption of productivity-enhancing technologies. Given such positive externalities, there is often an argument for government provision. Nevertheless, it is also important that framework conditions are designed in a way that encourages private sector infrastructure investment. Without a sufficient network of roads and ports, improvements in farm productivity could result in lower local prices for a commodity at the same time as there is inadequate supply in other provinces.",2,True
f7b3712,"In the model ECIRS payments are then triggered and the representative mixed crop and livestock farm receives the equivalent to the average receipt of ECIRS in 2007-08 (AUD 37 000)l0. On the other hand, the model assumes that ECRP also triggered under the same circumstance, but it is paid to the farmer only if the realized income is below the level set by income test criteria (AUD 62 per fortnight). The level of the ECRP is chosen at the average receipt of ECRP per recipient in 2007-08 (AUD 13 045).",2,True
561bffb,"If land owners are not willing to transfer the land and leave it, the investor does not have the right to lease the land and cany out its investment.” It should be noted that although the government discourages slash and burn cultivation, i.e. shifting cultivation, such a system can be sustainable and deliver environmental goods in areas where demographic pressure is relatively low. An approach tailored to the characteristics of each geographical area should thus be taken.",2,True
788da08,"Promoting niche markets through denomination of origin, eco-labelling, fair trade, organic and slow food initiatives, geographic indication, globally important agricultural heritage systems, and one-village-one-product initiatives may be particularly useful. Therefore, PGRFA include both farmers' varieties/landraces and modern cultivars of staple crops as well as NUS.The development and implementation of policies are a key component in promoting NUS/FSF into agricultural production systems (FAO, 2015a). Following this, the Rome Declaration on Nutrition included the call to ""Promote the diversification of crops including underutilized traditional crops, more production of fruits and vegetables, and appropriate production of animal-source products as needed, applying sustainable food production and natural resource management practices"" (FAO, 2014a). These commitments have become even more compelling with the imperative of achieving the SDGs by 2030. In general, in developing countries, the attainment of this objective even for staple crops, and more so for NUS, remains a seemingly intractable problem.",2,True
ac3a1e6,"But it suggests that rather than holding national stocks, it would be better to develop regional stocks or make food reserve agreements. And in March 2004, the ASEAN+3, which includes China, Japan, and the Republic of Korea, expanded this as the East Asia Emergency Rice Reserve. This reserve has been used to provide relief to victims of floods in Indonesia and Cambodia, to victims of volcanic eruption and mud slides in the Philippines, and to victims of Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar.",2,True
3af103a,"The main conditions for forming a successful PPP include: common objective, mutual benefits, complementarity of human and financial resources, clear institutional arrangements, good governance, transparency and public leadership. The new legal framework for PPPs in agriculture, to be refined in two circulars that MARD is developing, should thus clearly state the respective roles and responsibilities of the public and private sectors. There are a large number of cases, e.g. in providing financial support to agriculture or in food safety regulatory regime, in which co-ordination between various agencies both at the central government level and between central and local governments is weak.",2,True
ef8373f,"In 2014, 85% of procurement funds were used in this manner (CONAB-PAA, 2014). A significant share of PAA procured supplies (34% in 2014) is used for the school meal programme. In 2009 the National School Meal Program (PNAE) required public schools to allocate at least 30% of food expenditures to direct purchases from family farmers. Since 2011 under the Brazil without Extreme Poverty Plan, PAA procurement is specifically targeted to the 16 million persons living in extreme poverty with monthly income below BRL 70. In 2014, nearly 24 000 PAA suppliers, or 47%, fell within this category. The National Program for Biodiesel Production and Use (PNPB), which contains special provisions for family farmers, was launched by the Brazilian Government in 2005.",2,True
9e189dd,"A broader analysis of the financial sector in Myanmar can be found in Chapter 6 on financial sector development. While agriculture employs up to 61.2% of the workforce, only 1-3% of the volume of formal bank loans is extended to the agricultural sector. Although its lending has increased in recent years, it provides only short-term seasonal loans that cover a limited share of the production costs and continues to prioritise rice farmers. Other formal lenders have been unable to fill the gap.",2,True
60e4f3c,"The basic model also assumes competition in the market for the commodity and the absence of any other market distortions. A general result is that the main effect of a market distortion in this context is to change the distribution of research benefits, with comparatively small effects on the total benefits. Similar results apply to the other types of extensions to the basic model that may be introduced to allow for multiple markets or proprietary technology.",2,False
8ecd725,"An alternative is that funding could partly derive from subnational governments, but this would need to be coupled with tax reforms that boost subnational government income such as a possession-based rather than a transaction-based property tax (OECD, 2013a). Even if farmers manage to scale up their land holdings through renting in operating rights to farmland and attract suitable labour, poor access to finance may limit farm investment and mechanisation. A large problem for farmers in many developing countries is a lack of collateral.",2,True
eaa2651,"Particular attention is often paid to sustainable, or efficient, water use. Because the agriculture sector demands significant amounts of fresh water, a number of policies in both developing and developed countries target the efficient use of irrigation water. A strong call to recognise the importance of improving the efficiency of water and soil use in a sustainable manner by the agricultural sector was made by G20 leaders and G20 Agricultural Vice Ministers in May and June 2012.",2,True
e1d4e11,"The complexity of agricultural ecosystems makes it difficult to accurately measure, quantify and monitor the biogeochemical and natural resource flows that underlie agriculture. There is a lack of analytical tools and mechanisms readily available to measure, value and account for resource use and loss in agricultural production systems. Several efforts are under way to remedy this situation, for example within the framework of the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technology (WOCAT) and the Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) project.",2,True
bd8ec29,"Scenarios emphasizing improvements in end-use efficiency tend to meet sustainable development goals, such as ensuring (almost) universal access to electricity, maintaining air quality, and limiting global average temperature increases. However, if efficiency gains turn out to be small, the world will become highly dependent on rapidly improving innovation and increasing the supply of “clean” energy. Another insight is that sustainable development pathways have been devised that exclude nuclear power, and carbon capture and storage (and its bioengineering variants), technologies that face great sociopolitical and technical challenges.",2,False
0cf8e92,"North Cameroon had an estimated 9 306 km of roads in 2010,8% of them paved, and a density of 0.057 km/km2. Unpaved roads link areas of production to urban consumption centres. The dynamics of market creation have determined a spatial configuration that depends on the quality of the road network, unpaved vs. paved roads.",2,False
66e148d,"Their impacts on nutrition may also vary according to the economic and nutritional context of the country. Agricultural policies that provide appropriate incentives and clear market signals that promote the sustainable intensification and diversification of production will improve nutrition more effectively. On the other hand, the Common Agricultural Policy in European countries actually raises consumer prices of sugar and dairy products relative to prices of fruits and vegetables and thus may have a small positive impact on the overall healthiness of European diets (Capacci eta/., 2012).",2,True
7b2755c,"There are also structural challenges, such as the domination of subsistence-oriented producers in key product sectors, the weak integration of domestic food chains, and difficult access to external markets. Qualified labour is scarce, commercial credit markets are narrow, and much of the credit resources, especially for long-term investment, depend on state provision. Public resources should be shifted to remove significant deficiencies in transport infrastructure, water and land management, plant and animal health and food safety systems, information, research, education, and knowledge dissemination. Policy reform should not only include a stronger emphasis on the provision of public goods, but would also require developing new policies to manage risks in agriculture and promoting sustainable use of agricultural resources.",2,True
31d6b07,"The delegation used sport as a tool to unite and engage with the community. In partnership with the One World Play Project and Chevrolet, it donated over 11,000 footballs and hosted a friendly youth football match and other organized sporting activities. During the trip, the delegation met with representatives of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and with the Malawian Ministries of Lands, Housing and Urban Development, Health, Youth and Sports Development, and Agriculture, Irrigation and Water.",2,False
e29edda,"While rice fills the stomach, a rice-dominated diet provides only low to zero amounts of protein, amino acids and essential micronutrients, which can be found, for example, in pulses, fruits, nuts, tubers, vegetables, fish, meat and edible insects. The dependency on rice leads to insufficient intake of nutrient-rich foods, which in turn leads to a significant 'nutrition gap'. Dietary diversity is low when there is high consumption of cereals, mainly rice, but relatively low intakes of vegetables, fruits and pulses which are known to be rich in micronutrients and fibre.",2,True
14a6035,"Under these agreements, the centres recognize the authority of the Governing Body of the Treaty to provide policy guidance relating to their ex situ collections (i.e. collections of seeds stored in genebanks). From 1 February 2008, the Centres have been transferring all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture they hold in trust - using the SMTA. They have also helped countries recover from natural disasters such as Hurricane Mitch which struck Honduras and Nicaragua. A recent study showed that of the more than one million seed samples distributed over the past 10 years, the vast majority (80 per cent or more) went to universities and national agricultural research systems where scientists are developing new crop varieties that give higher yields, have improved nutritional value, use less water, need lower amounts of fertilizers, and have natural resistance to pests, diseases and climatic vagaries such as droughts and floods.",2,True
07150c1,"To feed an additional two billion people by 2050, food production will need to increase by half globally (FAO, SOFI, 2017). Increasing the production of traditional staple crops is unlikely to meet the increasing demand, in major irrigated wheat, rice and maize systems, yields appear to be near 80 percent of the yield potential. The second challenge is the nutrition gap between what foods are grown and available, and what foods are needed for good health. This requires increasing the availability and access to the nutritious foods necessary for a healthy diet.",2,True
30b270c,"The recent food crisis and slow progress towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goal of eradicating hunger have highlighted the wide disparities in technologies used and productivity achieved in different agricultural systems. While input and resource-intensive agriculture is the norm in many developed and middle-income developing countries, many developing countries continue to rely on low-input, low-productivity agriculture. Even as the former group of countries need to shift towards less intensive and more environmentally sound methods, farmers in many developing countries would benefit from greater input use.",2,True
e34a086,"Among the most vulnerable will be those who depend on agriculture for their livelihood and income, particularly smallholder producers in developing countries. In the absence of climate change, and with continuing economic progress, most regions are projected to see a decline in the number of people at risk of hunger by 2050. The increase in the number of poor would be biggest in sub-Saharan Africa, partly because its population is more reliant on agriculture.",2,True
1cfb931,"A recent study by the RIO+ Centre and the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network which looks at the complex relationship between gender and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) emphasizes the need for both gender-smartness and people-smartness in achieving CSA's aims of food security, higher farmer incomes, and low-carbon agricultural practices (Perch 2015). Nevertheless, food security, as the World Health Organization (WHO) points out, is ""a complex sustainable development issue, linked to health through malnutrition, but also to sustainable economic development, environment and trade"" (WHO 2016a). Greater gender equality is essential to achieve global food security (Carliez 2015, FAO and ADB 2013, Sachs 2013). Food sovereignty is ""more fluid and nuanced than the concept of food security"" (Sachs 2013).",2,True
746ab3e,"The most recent data compiled by UNICEF (2013) shows that in 82 out of 95 developing countries for which data are available the prevalence of child underweight is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Guha-Khasnobis and James (2010) found a prevalence of adult underweight of around 23 percent in the slum areas of eight Indian cities, while the prevalence in rural areas in the same states was close to 40 percent. It is technically a form of undernutrition (UNSCN, 2010), but is often referred to separately because it can coexist with adequate or excessive consumption of macronutrients and carries health consequences that are distinct from those associated with stunting.",2,True
1718e5a,"Investment in R&D has resulted in high growth in Brazilian scientific knowledge, particularly within tropical agriculture. Embrapa has provided comprehensive recommendations ranging from how to correct acid soils and low fertility, the development of varieties that are adapted to the low latitudes and higher temperatures of tropical environments, and to pest and disease control and production systems. Universities also produce high level research in areas complementing Embrapa’s activities, such as in nutrition, health and the environment. This mechanism facilitates participation in global or regional agricultural research networks. Embrapa is also actively collaborating on technology transfer and adaptive research with developing economies, with an emphasis on tropical areas in Latin America, the Caribbean and Africa.",2,True
6a8c015,"This argument is supported in the report by a number of case studies that illustrate that, although macro-economic policy reforms have had positive effects on agriculture in some parts of Africa, the overall impact of the reforms has been slower and less dramatic than could have been expected. The main reason for the reforms' restricted impact is that the constraints to achieving sustainable agricultural productivity and increasing yields lie both on and off the farm. Hence, in many cases, transportation, trade, and macroeconomic policies have stronger effects on farmer and trader incentives than do agricultural sector policies, a point that underscores the need for better policy coordination across ministries. Strategies should therefore focus on transforming the weak points along the food system as a whole, and avoid too narrow a focus on farming.",2,True
f68cfd6,"This might be particularly true in Indonesia where large fertiliser subsidies are channelled through fertiliser suppliers and not provided to farmers directly. In light of expressed government objectives, these proposals highlight policy options that are potentially more effective and efficient than some existing policy measures. Food security would be greatly enhanced by making agriculture a more attractive sector for investors.",2,True
0a3bca8,"Fertiliser subsidies remain by far the most important programme through which the government provides budgetary support to agriculture. This subsidy is received indirectly by farmers as is channelled through fertiliser companies. These companies are responsible for lowering the price of their final product, which in turn benefits farmers (OECD, 2013b). To ensure the success of the programme, beneficiaries also receive technical guidance from a local agriculture extension officer. The giant is based on a proposal prepared by groups of farmers. The Indonesian government, through the Raskin Programme, buys a given percentage of the total output of rice produced by small-scale farmers.",2,True
51fe8bc,"Fanning units that showed dominance in specific products were combined to form totals for field crop products, horticultural products and animals and animal products. Farmland plus nature conservation land plus forestry land plus other. Source: Development Bank of Southern Africa. Statistics SA, Census of Agriculture 1993, 2002 and 2007, and agricultural survey 1996. Today there are under 40 000 farming units occupying about 67% of total land of the country, around 86 million hectares. On the other hand, approximately 1.3 million smallholders (that may produce for markets or for selfconsumption) are black.",2,True
901c3a2,"Obesity and the food system transformation in Latin America. Climate change and food security: risks and responses. World Economic and Social Survey 2016 -Climate Change Resilience: An Opportunity for Reducing Inequalities. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.",2,True
bf8c7ca,"Creating such an environment is complementary to the provision of more traditional public goods such as improved infrastructure, animal and plant health, education and information systems, and extension. Improvements in these areas could bring substantial long-term gains to agricultural producers through more transparent markets, improved price formation, and, ultimately, higher agricultural incomes. Benefits would also accrue to other agents of the supply chain, including food consumers for whom more competitive food chains would provide higher quality products. Because these characteristics vary with the product, and the location or size of the farm, the focus is on specific subsectors: wheat, dairy and beef, the three largest sub-sectors of Kazakhstan’s agro-food system.",2,True
fa8ab15,"More extreme weather - with intense precipitation, floods and droughts - is predicted across the six SEE economies. Rainfall is predicted to decrease. These changes could reduce crop yields across the six SEE economies, especially for maize, and increase exposure to agricultural pests. Livestock productivity in Albania, Kosovo and Montenegro could fall (Callaway et al.,",2,True
d8ff0a3,"However, more detailed assessments are needed in order to properly assess AFOLU's mitigation potential, the impacts on vulnerable production systems and groups, and the costs of implementation. It is a pre-requisite that practices optimized to reduce GHG emissions or sequester carbon should also protect the land tenure rights of small-scale producers and contribute to food security and climate change adaptation, particularly for the most vulnerable groups. On the economic side, options include positive incentives for farmers to provide and maintain carbon sinks, taxation of nitrogen fertilizer in countries where it is being overutilized, a measure which is already applied in some OECD countries to reduce nitrate pollution, and supply-chain initiatives that market food products with a low carbon footprint (Paustian et al., It has been estimated, using previous calculations and data from Bellarby et al. ( These approaches generally account for emissions from pre-chain inputs through to post-farm gate processing by including methane, nitrous oxide and C02 emissions, and fossil fuel use in food systems (e.g. Steinfeld et al., This can be compared with around 5.2 GtC02-eq generated by agriculture and around 4.9 Gt0O2-eq by forestry and land use change.",2,True
0a92de4,"The former were local, the latter, international. Together, they contained the seeds of a reshaping of the West African migratory system. The major historical trends were shifting: the polarity of the coast, initiated by the Arab-Islamic and transatlantic slave trades and fully materialised under colonisation, was weakened.",2,False
a9e106a,"Relying on a very small fraction of staple crops for our diet has dire implications for both food security and nutrition. The lack of genetic diversity within the gene pools of the dominant cultivated crops, leaves agricultural systems vulnerable to pests, diseases and other abiotic stresses. Agricultural sustainability relies on a healthy interaction between agriculture and nature.",2,True
6e78863,"The CCVFV should ask for recommendations from the Ministry of Mining or the MECF if relevant and obtain MIC agreement for foreign projects. Once the application has been approved by the district FAB and the registration fees have been paid (around USD 0.57 per person), the township FAB issues the certificate. Applicants that are cultivating the land should show photos of the cultivated land and the Nay Pyi Taw Council or the region/state department office should approve the issuance of a land use right.",2,True
11bd88c,"Bt cotton and corn, for example, use less herbicides and pesticides, but if these crop varieties develop resistance to the less toxic chemical herbicides and pesticides, future more toxic inputs may be required. In this case, adoption of transgenic crops could have large negative ecological implications if “GE crops are adopted more widely in developing countries where domesticated crops have wild relatives” (Ervin, Glenna and Jussaume, 2010, p. 7). Innovative mechanisms designed to engage the private sector need to be explored: results-based performance contracts—for the development, for example, of improved seed or crop varieties with higher water-stress tolerance and greater responsiveness to fertilizers—granted on a competitive basis may be one means of stimulating private research.",2,True
4dac17e,"Table 10 summarises risk-related policies following this two dimensional approach, which allows one to highlight several general features of New Zealand’s policies. Risk management policies in New Zealand fall predominantly under the efficiency objective. These measures are largely focused on reducing transactions cost (by establishing regulations conducive to competition and adaptation, and creating a stable macroeconomic framework), addressing the problem of asymmetric information (e.g. through research and information), and addressing the problem of externalities (e.g. biosecurity measures).",2,False
93653f1,"Allowing for the spillover benefits into other states, state-specific agricultural research investments generated national benefits of between USD 10 and USD 70 per research dollar, averaging USD 32 across the states. The marginal benefit-cost ratio for USDA intramural research was comparable, at USD 18 per dollar invested in research. In fact, however, these ratios are consistent with internal rates of return at the smaller end of the range compared with the general results in the literature as reviewed by Alston et al. ( Some internal rates of return are reported here to facilitate comparisons with other studies.",2,True
5217f32,"Agreements to do so can be reached at the bilateral, regional or multilateral levels. The pursuit of food self-sufficiency to mitigate international risks is a costly policy that undermines the function of the international trading system, making markets thinner, more volatile and therefore riskier than if countries were to adopt open trade policies. In the face of both international and domestic risks, such as that of a failed harvest, a country which uses trade barriers to promote self-sufficiency because of the fear of trade interruptions may find itself exposed to greater potential losses than if it had remained open to international trade. At the national level, some developing countries may be vulnerable to imported instability, notably if their consumption is centred around just one or two food staples, and if their imports are sourced from just one or two countries. These risks can be mitigated by promoting more diversified diets (something that happens naturally to a degree as incomes rise) and by diversifying trading partners.",2,True
35618f7,"For the projection period, biofuel markets are projected to be highly influenced by mandates and other incentives in countries all over the world, with the US, Brazil and the EU playing major roles, respectively, on ethanol and biodiesel markets. Based on sustained political support for biofuels, the Outlook projects increasing world biofuel prices and these will also be underpinned by rising crude oil and energy prices. The world ethanol price2 should follow an increasing trend to reach USD 54.4 per hi in 2019 supported by demand conditions in the US market where the Conventional Renewable Fuels mandate is assumed to be binding over the entire projection period. These quantities are far above the average 2007-09 base levels.",2,False
38e2de8,"Brazil's cotton production is expected to grow even faster than the world’s largest cotton producer, India, which has a greater potential for higher yield growth as it starts from a low base. During the course of the next ten years, Brazil is expected to draw-down cotton stocks. Changing competition for resources to produce other commodities is also expected to influence the outlook for cotton markets.",2,False
3ae5c25,"In an integrated world, this difference prevents the regional economy from managing at its own pace the gradual transfer of the active population from agricultural activities to modern-type activities, faced with the import of goods from advanced countries. The sudden appearance on the world market of emerging economies draining the entire investment capacity of the advanced economies may mean that Africa remains limited to exporting primary products (agricultural and mined), postponing industrialisation consistent with the growth of its population. This growth is penalising the consumption and saving potential of households, limiting the ability of the regional market to support a change in production.",2,False
e9cce00,"Nutrition-sensitive interventions and programmes: how can they help to accelerate progress in improving maternal and child nutrition? The lancet, 382(9891): 536-551. Household dietary diversity and Food expenditures are closely linked in rural Bangladesh, increasing the risk of malnutrition due to the financial crisis. Association of household rice expenditure with child nutritional status indicates a role for macroeconomic food policy in combating malnutrition. The Journal of Nutrition, 133(5): 1320-1325. Higher household expenditure on animal-source and nongrain foods lowers the risk of stunting among children 0-59 months old in Indonesia: implications of rising food prices.",2,True
60398b3,"These estimates translate into roughly 605 million, 260 million and 688 million children under age 15, respectively. The relationship between food insecurity and poverty, and well-being varies by region, demonstrating that definitions of food insecurity depend on regional context, and encompass more than monetary poverty alone. Finally, correlations of food insecurity and income per capita between 2006 and 2015, show that some regions were harder hit by the shocks in food prices and the Great Recession than others. In addition, further research on how food insecurity differs between children and adults will be important for future efforts to address and reduce child hunger.",2,True
6f473c6,"A Commodity Levy Act (1990) empowers producers to self-impose levies through a vote in order to finance the “industry good” activities. Once voted, the levy becomes obligatory for all commercial producers of a commodity and is charged on each unit marketed as a type of sales tax. Levies are collected by downstream operators and transferred to industry good bodies.17 The obligatory character of the levy is grounded by the necessity to avoid a “free-rider problem”. However, this compulsory levy is introduced through voting and therefore is self-imposed.",2,False
db66003,"The elimination of most public stocks in OECD countries and the privatization of most State-trading enterprises have concentrated knowledge concerning agricultural commodity availability in the hands of a small number of companies which maintain this information as proprietary. One of the most important elements of the Action Plan on Food Price Volatility, agreed by the G20 Agriculture Ministers at their meeting held in Paris on 22 and 23 June 2011, was the launching of the Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS) to improve market information and transparency of data on current stocks, and promote coordination of policy responses (see Ministerial declaration, para. Second, assuming the role traditionally played by the United States of America and China as stock holders, the international community should maintain a minimum level of world food stock.",2,True
1c7c2cf,"The Ministry of Education is charged with the shaping of the education system through the development of curricula, national objectives and guidelines. Within this framework, municipalities and independent providers implement educational activities, organise school services, allocate resources and ensure that educational goals are met. Individual districts and schools are then entrusted with a large degree of autonomy to organise local schooling.",3,False
aed463f,"Most of the local government institutions lack the capacity required to implement the policy, legislation and associated programmes. Local bodies are not financially independent and they have no autonomy in decision-making. They are financially dependent on grants from the central Government, as locally mobilized resources (mainly from property taxes) are often insufficient even for their basic operation, let alone for public services. Thus, local bodies depend on the centre for policies, plans, financial resources, human resources and even for budgetary decisions, which severely restricts the creativity and innovativeness of local leaders. Moreover, local leaders lack adequate knowledge and proper training to become visionary with regard to the socio-economic development of their locality.",3,False
c106e56,"Brisbane: School of Population Health, University of Queensland. The first version of this model was developed to study the impact of type 2 diabetes on the Australian population including health, health expenditures and broader economic impacts, such as changes in employment and productivity. The model was used to test the potential future impact of various policy interventions to reduce the future burden of diabetes for the purpose of improved decision-making regarding population health investment, work-force participation and productivity.",3,True
c980bc7,"Authorship is usually collective, but principal writers are named. The papers are generally available only in their original language - English or French - with a summary in the other. The opinions expressed and arguments employed are those of the author(s). Comments on Working Papers are welcomed, and may be sent to the Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs OECD, 2 rue Andre-Pascal, 75775 Paris Cedex 16, France. The author remains responsible for any errors and omissions. The opinions expressed in the paper are the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the OECD or its Member Countries.",3,False
943d579,"This is a limiting structure, as real-world events occur in continuous time, and more importantly, some decisions/transitions are joint, or occur together. The model also has no labour-supply dimension. There are models for labour-force participation, unemployment and retirement but no model of hours worked and the variables that influence those hours, including the family budget, tax rates, and health. Changes in the macro economy can be entered into the model as a scenario, however, there is no general equilibrium mechanism within the model itself.",3,False
28bf71a,"Young people who are proficient in the Sami language and culture enjoy a more liberated and less politicized definition of ""Saminess"" than did the preceding generation. Many adolescent Sami express a complex identity including Norwegian, Swedish or Finnish and Sami culture and language, some identify themselves with another ethnicity as well. Many of the younger Sami are from families where their parents' and grandparents' generations were the targets of force assimilation policies.",3,False
090a205,"The review of models in this paper highlights emerging systems of models where different modelling approaches are designed to work together coherently. In this way, techniques w'ith different strengths are amalgamated and a broader range of policy questions may be explored. Examples include the system of models developed by the U.S. Congressional Budget Office and by the University of Canberra and Monash University in Australia.",3,False
7041b33,"Dialogue with Donors on Urban Poverty Issues (Dhaka, CARE Bangladesh). Slums of Urban Bangladesh: Mapping and Census, 2005” (Dhaka and Chapel Hill, USA). Urban poverty and the working poor: Facing the challenges of urbanization and urban poverty in Asia and the Pacific”, Committee on Poverty Reduction, 24 September (E/ESCAP/C PR(4)/4).",3,False
208b63a,"A strict concept of novelty will normally result in the rejection of product patents for new uses. This may be stated in express terms in a country’s patent law or in regulations, resulting in an a priori rejection of the novelty test for product claims of new uses of known products. As regards the protection under a process patent, however, the situation is more complex. Whether or not a new use is obvious is case-specific and cannot generally be anticipated in a domestic patent law, but has to be left to a case-by-case examination.",3,False
9a2b418,"About half of all NEETs are below 25, although 15-19 year-olds are much less likely to be NEETs than 20-24 and 25-29 year-olds. The proportion of 15-19 year-old NEETs ranges from 7% in Slovenia and 9% in the Slovak Republic to 28% in Mexico and 27% in Chile and Sweden. Numbers are for individuals aged 15-29 years, for the United States, the age range considered is 16-24 because no information on student status is available for individuals aged 25 years and above. Data are for 2011 except for Canada (2009), Ireland (2010) and Mexico (2012).",3,False
afc98c7,"Libya and Yemen, too, have more recently slid into states of civil war, with competing factions, often based on tribal and regional affiliations, vying for local and sometimes national power, although given the especially recent and dynamic nature of conflict in these countries, they are not covered in detail in this chapter. Data come from 1990 and 2010.",3,False
3f2b5a9,"Despite such initiatives, respondents noted that applications of genomics for stratified medicine delivery remain somewhat limited at present. However, they did mention some important innovations, notably in the field of cancer therapeutics, while national audits show an increase in the provision of novel drugs requiring companion diagnostics. Stratified medicine was seen as helping to address these problems by transforming understanding of the role of genetic variation in disease and enabling more accurate disease classification, diagnosis and targeting of drugs and other interventions.",3,True
b27ded8,"Meanwhile, greater mobility has increased the spread of infectious diseases across oceans and facilitated global pandemics such as influenza and SARS that threaten developed as well as developing countries. Now, we find ourselves in the midst of yet another transformation in biomedical science. The first decades of the current century may well be remembered for the advances occurring in genomics and in associated areas of science and technology. These advances promise new understandings of disease and more effective ways of tackling ill health.",3,True
8856b36,"For several years, large-scale trafficking in APAAN, a pre-precursor of amphetamine and methamphetamine, has been of concern to drug control authorities worldwide. In the European Union, following control measures implemented in member States from January 2014, both the number of seizures and the amounts of APAAN seized have decreased gradually from 34 seizures (a total of 28.7 tons) in 2012 to 9 seizures (8.1 tons) in 2014. In the first half of 2015, five incidents involving a total of 1,250 kg of the substance were reported. In December 2013, the European Union adopted new control measures aimed at preventing the large-scale diversion of acetic anhydride from the European Union market.",3,False
05536da,"Under Article 40 of the TRIPS Agreement, members may only control IP abuses that have anti-competitive effects and thereby a negative impact on trade and technology transfer. This is so because Article 40.1 covers the licensing of any IPR, such as trademarks, which is not necessarily related to technology transfer. See UNCTAD-ICTSD Resource Book, p. 557.",3,False
487f1fc,"From the beginning of the twentieth century, indigenous peoples were subjected to collectivization, industrialization, forced migration to urban centres and sedentarization, all of which failed to take into consideration indigenous cultures and ways of life. Rapid industrialization led to the contamination and devastation of landscape and wildlife and decreased access to indigenous self-subsistence activities. Collectivization destroyed indigenous community-based economies.",3,False
640b2a9,"At the same time, the use of a personal identifier for data linkage is reportedly complicated due to privacy legislation in Australia, the Czech Republic, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea and Norway. By contrast, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Portugal and Denmark strengthened their legislative framework to permit privacy-protective data use. In the United Kingdom notably, several legislative frameworks were introduced so that information can be collected, held securely and made available with safeguards in place to protect individuals’ data.",3,False
06900df,"Many countries have adopted national plans of action to combat child trafficking, but the lack of reliable statistical information remains a significant obstacle - most data focus only on the cross-border trafficking of girls and women for sexual exploitation. She has been working in the city's mass transit system selling hairpins and other products since she was 3 years old. Many of those engaged in child labour experience its worst forms - including forced and bonded work, illicit activities, armed combat and domestic labour.",3,False
39a3212,"Finally, the ongoing challenges of a lack of human and financial resources, as well as a lack of adequate data and research methodologies, limit the capacity of governments to design policies that could serve to build an intercultural health system. Efforts that codify, protect and advance the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples, particularly indigenous women, will therefore also have positive health impacts. Furthermore, there must be ongoing integration of the perspectives and needs of indigenous peoples into global health programmes, plans, projects and policies, including initiatives to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. In order to design more effective health policies, there must also be concerted efforts to create improved systems of data collection and research methodology, including research into traditional medicine that incorporate the participation of indigenous communities and reflect cultural and social considerations relating to the health of those communities.",3,True
987c62a,"Mainly dependent on commodities export (minerals, coffee and other raw materials), Colombian gross domestic product (GDP) grew 3.9% per year between 2003 and 2008, and 2.7% per year between 2008 and 2013 (OECD, 2015c). Colombian GDP per capita was USD PPP 12 750 in 2013, up from USD PPP 6 611 per capita in 2000 (standardised to 2015 prices in each case). The gap in GDP per capita between Colombia and OECD economies has started to narrow, although remains large (Figure 1.3). Even though poverty in the country as a whole is decreasing, large disparities between different regions persist.",3,False
97ca91b,"The situation is even more worrying for young women since nearly 40% of them are neither in employment nor in education or training (which is the second highest rate among OECD countries after Turkey). Overall, nearly 47% of Mexican women are employed or seek employment, an employment rate which is 34% lower than the OECD average (OECD, 2014b). Against this background, the informal sector might naturally constitute a preferred alternative for both women and youth in Mexico.",3,False
a04d263,"Wales’ voice in the UK Government is represented by the Secretary of State for Wales in the Wales Office. There are also certain situations in which the Welsh Government works collaboratively with the UK Government on legislation that affects Wales but which is passed by the Westminster Parliament. International matters, such as relationships with the WHO and the OECD, are also a non-devolved matter.",3,False
cb0b3ba,"The employment rate is high by OECD standards (68% vs 55.6% in 2014), while the unemployment rate and inactivity are significantly lower in Kazakhstan (5.2% vs 7.9% and 29.3% vs 40% respectively in 2014) (Figure 1.4). In contrast to the experience of most OECD countries, the global financial crisis and the economic recession did not have a major impact on labour market outcomes in Kazakhstan, unemployment rates have in fact declined considerably since 2007 and employment and inactivity indicators also improved to some degree over the same period. In 2013, informal employment in Kazakhstan affected 24.3% of workers despite an earlier decline in its prevalence (OECD, 2016).",3,False
2ab0721,"Continued innovation and evaluation of the models of care, especially in rural and remote areas, is also needed. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. Reforms in 2011 (namely, Law 1438) sought to strengthen universal health coverage by placing preventive and primary care as the cornerstone of the Colombian health system.",3,True
a7b7cd5,"In 1857, indigenous men were allowed to renounce their indigenous status and the right to live on reserve lands in order to assimilate into non-indigenous society. Indigenous women, on the other hand, were not given the same choice. In fact, in contrast to traditional indigenous matriarchal family structure the post colonial indigenous women's status was determined by the choices made by her husband or father.",3,False
6ed87b0,"This dust, mixed with the air, is thought to cause lung cancer and other breathing ailments. Elevated radon levels have also been associated with these abandoned mines. The effect of long-term radiation exposure in the levels associated with these mines is largely unknown. Despite the obvious need, there have not been to date any comprehensive studies of radiation and heavy metal contamination in the United States.",3,True
7c1cb77,"Stanislawa Golinowska is an economist at the Center for Social and Economic Research in Warsaw and Institute of Public Health, Department of Medical Sciences, Jagiellonian University in Cracow. Patrizio Sicari is research assistant in the OECD Economics Department. The authors are thankful to Andrew Dean, Robert Ford, Peter Jarrett, Isabelle Joumard, Andrzej Kwiecinski, Gaetan Lafortune, Yuki Murakami, Valerie Paris, Artur Radziwill and Polish government officials for their valuable comments on previous drafts.",3,False
4066d02,"Confronted with the continued and rapid emergence of new psychoactive substances, countries in the region have placed additional substances under temporary listing and/or extended the scope of drug control to defined groups of substances. For instance, the Republic of Korea announced the temporary control of 10 new psychoactive substances (6 synthetic cannabinoids, 2 phen-ethylamines and 2 other miscellaneous substances) for three years in December 2014, which brought the number of new psychoactive substances currently under temporary control to 86. Under that country’s Act on the Control of Narcotics, the possession, management, trade, assistance in the trade, or the giving or receiving of materials that contain a temporary scheduled substance are prohibited.",3,False
c17e6ee,"In OECD databases, the administrative data are used as input for datasets on the number of “professionally active” workers, while the LFS data are used to indicate the number of “practising” professionals. The OECD definition excludes those working in jobs where the relevant qualifications are not required, and those that are unemployed, retired or working abroad. These groups cannot be properly filtered out of the Israeli data, as an approximation the “professionally active” data for Israel represent all those aged less than 65 years licenced to practice.",3,False
80b85ea,"All cigarettes and tobacco products must be sold in plain olive green packets without branding. The packets carry graphic health warnings and the laws took effect as of December 2012 (see Figure 2.6 for examples). Plain packaging aims to remove a key remaining means for industry to promote its products to current and potential consumers (Freeman et al., The legislation withstood serious industry opposition and was upheld in the High Court of Australia.",3,True
c8cb2c5,"Specific examples drawing on experiences in Australia, England, Netherlands, Sweden and the United States are explored further in the following sections. Other promising examples, for which there is not space to describe in full here, are developing in a number of other OECD countries and progress should be followed attentively, for example the MARS project in Switzerland and the Scottish Recovery Indicator 2 approach. Countries have adopted different approaches to the development of indicators, standards and targets. Differences exist between countries in the extent to which such measures are mandatory or not, which in turn may be related to their purpose.",3,False
fe7cd1d,"In Viet Nam, access to maternal health care services ranges from 90 per cent in urban areas to as low as 20 per cent in remote areas of the Central Highland and Northern Uplands regions inhabited by indigenous peoples"".35 Similar trends have been recorded throughout Latin America36 as well as in the richer developed countries. However, between the 1980s and the end of the century, a slowing or stalling of indigenous health improvements measured by life expectancy meant that the gap failed to close significantly (Canada) or even widened (New Zealand and the United States). In fact, because indigenous peoples are essentially invisible in the data collection of many international agencies and in most national censuses, the disparities in their health situation as compared to other groups continue to be obscured. Similarly, even when indigenous peoples appear in health data, they are often conceived of as a percentage of a national population, which UNICEF has noted ""can be misleading in as much as the distribution of certain indigenous peoples does not correspond to national boundaries.",3,True
106722c,"Reforms undertaken in periods of crisis may not properly distinguish between effective and ineffective programmes. Cutting effective programmes aiming at attaining quick cost savings might endanger the health status of the population and result in higher costs, eventually. Greece offers a recent example of such cuts as they have resulted in an increase in HIV and tuberculosis infections along with the re-emergence of malaria (Stuckler and Basu 2013, OECD, 2013).",3,True
b887505,"It also raised concerns about the higher use of these codes in some specialities, such as orthopaedics and ophthalmology, and instances of inappropriate use. Both the initial report by the Auditor General for Scotland (2013 a), and a follow-up report from later that year (Auditor General for Scotland, 2013b), do importantly note that the use of unavailability codes began to reduce in late 2011, a trend which continued into 2012 and 2013. Much of this work is the Quality and Efficiency Support Team (QuEST) and is described further in Section 2.9.",3,False
8519b32,"About 90% of health funds’ income for providing NHI services comes from government (Figure 2.9), about half of which comes from an earmarked component of national insurance contributions (often referred to as the “health tax”), the rest from general taxation. Almost all of the government-to-fund transfer is through a capitation payment based on the age and sex profile of each fund’s client base and a “remoteness” variable (which was added in 2010 and is discussed further below). In contrast, transfers between the funds and the providers are based on health services provided (or approximations thereof). Hence, in principle, one of the key strengths of the system is that the health funds have incentives to ensure the efficient provision of services and to engage in preventive measures - a healthy client base means fewer costs through the reimbursement system.",3,True
3d21472,"In estimation (I) in table 4, we include those variables with only a complete set of observations in order to maximize the sample size and hence the robustness of our results. This estimation captures the relation between infant mortality and its determinants for children born between January 1971 and September 2007. In estimation (II) in table 4, we use the same set of variables, but include only the children that were born during the 10-year period prior to the survey, thereby reducing the sample size by about one half (from 41,153 to 19,146).",3,True
bc12c61,"There shall be no discrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. The need for, and the application of, such measures shall always be subject to review by a judicial or other authority. Providing for such needs in order to accomplish substantial gender equality shall not be regarded as discriminatory. They constitute the fundamental principles which are valid in all systems and prisons worldwide, and apply to all prisoners without discrimination. In addition, as mentioned earlier, due to their small numbers, women are often housed in prisons far away from their homes, which hinders the maintenance of links with their families and children, with a particularly harmful effect on their mental wellbeing and social reintegration prospects.",3,False
9efb0ff,"Globally in 2015, approximately three in four women of reproductive age (15 to 49 years) who were married or in a union satisfied their need for family planning by using modern contraceptive methods. Only three in four births took place with the assistance of a skilled birth attendant. This was short of the two-thirds reduction envisaged in the MDGs. In 2015, an estimated 5.9 million children under age 5 died, most of these deaths were preventable. Over this period, progress in child survival among children aged 1 to 59 months outpaced advances in reducing neonatal mortality, as a result, a growing share of all under-5 deaths occurs in the first month of life (45 per cent in 2015).",3,True
42f0a90,"In the Baltic countries (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) and Finland, education was found to be negatively associated with alcohol abuse in men, but positively associated with heavy drinking, but not HED, in women (Helasoja et al., In the Czech Republic, men, single persons and people with low education were found to be at higher risk of hazardous alcohol drinking (Dzurova et al., Conversely, the literature shows an opposite pattern for women, with the higher educated more likely to be hazardous drinkers. In Austria, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, women with higher education were more likely to be hazardous drinkers (Bloomfield et al., This trend in women is confirmed in Germany, France Switzerland, and Norway, whereas in the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, and Sweden, less educated women were more likely to be hazardous drinkers (Kuntsche et al,, 2006). In a meta-analysis of 33 countries, part of the GENACIS project, men and women with greater education were found to be more likely to consume alcohol than their counterparts with less education.",3,True
3e4906d,"High quality care for pregnant women and newborns is often lacking, even for babies and mothers who have contact with the health system (UNICEF, 2015). The strong association between mortality and various measures of socio-economic status (as measured by household wealth and mother's education) remains even after other potential causal factors are taken into account. Those factors include mother’s age, urban/rural type of residence, and key characteristics of the child such as sex, birth order, length of previous birth interval).",3,True
009c49d,"Older persons usually suffer from a combination of these diseases (WHO, 2011). The socioeconomic potential cost of these diseases has risen sharply with population ageing and may affect economic growth (WHO, 2011). Furthermore, the burden of non-communicable diseases is projected to increase, especially in low-income countries.",3,True
cc52d92,"Continuity of the drinking water supply is an issue: the country average for water continuity is about 12 hours. Currently, only two of the water utilities in Albania (Kor$e and Librazhd) can provide a 24-hour water supply service across their entire systems throughout the year. The high compliance rate refers to big water supply systems, whereas the small water supply systems and those in rural areas are not subject to monitoring and control.",3,False
6133ede,"This case-by-case approach tends inevitably to favour a downward pressure on eligibility standards, which may occur before any given country is in a position to profit locally from such standards. To avoid such a result, examiners and courts should be able to resort to a high level expert body, staffed by people (not necessarily all nationals, but experts in which the government has confidence) who have both the expertise to evaluate these issues in specific cases and a common understanding of and dedication to the local patent policies and strategies. By contrast, distinguished academic authorities have expressed the view that the Indian provision can be defended.",3,False
1ad0131,"As described in Mongolia’s 2015 national report, ""Managing the transition from the Millennium Development Goals to the Sustainable Development Goals"", there are considerable discrepancies in children’s health status related to parental education, household income, infrastructure development and geographical location. Additionally, in selected poverty-prone areas, a decline in household income leads to food shortages, which in turn results in malnutrition among infants and under-5-year-old children. In 2015, the infant (under-1-year-old) mortality rate was 15.3, the highest infant mortality rate is observed for the western region (22 per 1,000 live births). In 2016, the average maternal mortality ratio at aimag level was 56.0 per 100,000 live births and the Ulaanbaatar maternal mortality ratio was 41.8 per 100,000 live births.",3,True
54161b0,"In view of the lack of programme evaluation in the Arab region, the evidence for this assertion comes from programmes around the world on tobacco abuse, bullying, drugs and obesity.106 A school approach is appropriate for sexual and reproductive health, although, in this area, cultural stigma and taboo are barriers to access to information. Although the analysis in this chapter identifies policies that each country can implement, success will be enhanced if countries apply the policies comprehensively and if groups of countries adopt similar policies. Tobacco shows why: before 2006, Jordan and Syria had bans on advertising in tobacco products, although Lebanon did not.",3,True
8b2ae82,"The second aims to cover urban residents without insurance (children, elderly people without pensions and the long-term unemployed) but not migrants. The first two schemes share many features. Membership is voluntary and the central government is to provide a payment for each participant, which the local government is encouraged to match.",3,False
4313107,"Education-related inequalities are marked in Switzerland in men, and in Slovenia in women. On the other hand, the indexes of inequalities in men in Korea (by education level) and Chile (by SES) are near zero, indicating that no inequality is detected. Positive indexes are found in SES-related inequalities in men in Czech Republic and education-related inequalities in women in Korea. This indicates a reverse socioeconomic gradient: people at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder are more likely to drink alcohol.",3,False
6156aa2,"In a subsequent infringement suit, the Federal Circuit found that the claim had been narrowed in scope to the use of HPMC as release agent. Generic competitors were free to use buproprion hydrochloride in combination with release agents other than HPMC. A claim “comprising” elements A and B is open in its literal meaning to an additional element C, as long as C does not modify the overall character of the invention. Third parties producing a generic substitute comprising elements A, B, and C are therefore likely to be held liable for infringement of the literal scope of the patent.",3,False
f127415,"These achievements, however, have been driven largely by sales of natural resources, leaving Kazakhstan vulnerable to volatility in global commodity prices. Nevertheless, the health care system still retains the hallmarks of a transitional economy undergoing profound restructuring. Despite some improvement, Kazakhstan’s health outcomes continue to lag behind those of the OECD countries and reveal some worrying regional inequalities.",3,True
cc3c698,"Our results confirm the relevance of mothers education, which is significant in all four estimations (although the average effect of one additional year of schooling seems to be small). We take this as an indication of the progress Jordan has made during the past few decades in improving girl’s access to primary and secondary education. Urban residence and residence outside the Badia region do not have a significant effect in any of our estimations. Residence in the Central region, which includes the capital Amman, has a positive impact on infant mortality in estimation (I), which covers the period from 1971 to 2007, but this effect does not carry over to estimation (II), covering only the last 10 years before the survey.",3,True
4e68f71,"Data on wages are usually collected through employment and income surveys, more rarely in health surveys. Monthly or hourly individual’s wage is generally used in this study. Productivity is difficult to measure, it can be approximated by the rate of absenteeism from work or the number of sickness absences, the amount of disability benefits received, and the rate of presenteeism4.",3,False
7ab27b4,"The number of samples analysed, however, is relatively low, mostly due to a lack of re-agents, laboratory equipment problems, etc. Furthermore, the share of food samples taken within the framework of projects and studies is growing, which may not show the real situation as the objectives of projects and studies have their own specifics. Capacity for pesticide residue controls in food and feed of plant and animal origin is not yet in place.",3,False
f9d6d19,"In 2015, WHO included direct-acting antivirals in its Model List of Essential Medicines18 and, in 2016, launched the first global strategy on hepatitis.19 Despite the high burden of hepatitis C among PWID, treatment has occurred at very low levels, which is related to the substantial barriers that exist for PWID in accessing care.20 These include lack of awareness, stigma and discrimination, limited access to hepatitis C testing and treatment and the cost of the medications. International Journal ofDrug Policy, vol. Some examples where action has been taken include Australia, which, since March 2016, has offered universal access to hepatitis C treatment and has identified prisoners and PW1D as priority populations for the expansion of coverage of treatment.",3,True
8dfe739,"Results have been less satisfactory for vulnerable road users, however, there has been a reduction of only a third in pedestrian and cyclist fatalities over the last decade. In terms of killed PTW riders, here, too, results were disappointing, with a reduction of only 14% in fatalities. The safety of vulnerable road users continues to be a core road safety issue, not least in lower income countries. In Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands, the rate in terms of fatalities per 100 000 population has been divided by more than six.",3,True
5df02d3,"Much can be done in terms of integrating gender into the design and implementation of programmes that promote income security across the life cycle, including cash transfers, public works programmes and pensions. To provide long-term solutions, however, these efforts must be part of a broader package, including policies that enable women to access decent work—which remains the main source of income for most working-age adults and their families. International Labour Organization (ILO) Recommendation No. They participate less in the labour market, earn lower wages and enjoy less access to credit and other assets than men.",3,False
97954d5,"Israel currently relies on a crude measure of disadvantage that identifies individuals as “low socio-economic status” on the basis of their entitlement to income support (such as unemployment benefits, pensions and family supplements). Moving beyond this categorisation and making quality indicators available by key dimensions of inequality such as geography, language and religion would help provide a richer picture of where disadvantage concentrates. This is likely to be a considerable task involving further recording or matching health information to other social data held by the government. In the short term, disaggregating quality information that is already being collected by region would help better map the geography of disadvantage than is possible today and help pinpoint which areas have room for improvement.",3,False
6acd273,"At the central level, the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development plays a key role in urban governance, with a wide range of controlling authority over urban local government institutions. Two types of urban local bodies, known as city corporations and pourashavas, have massive public, environmental and primary health care mandates. They are both directly elected by the local people. Out of the 522 urban areas identified by the 1991 Census Commission (Bangladesh 1993), only 316 urban centres have local governments.",3,False
1115ec5,"The most deprived and vulnerable are most often excluded from progress and most difficult to reach. They require particular attention not only in order to secure their entitlements, but also as a matter of ensuring the realization of everyone’s rights. The most rapidly and widely ratified of these is the Convention on the Rights of the Child.",3,False
e4221d4,"Already, driver assistance technologies such as electronic stability control and autonomous emergency braking are reducing the risk of road trauma. Information and communication technologies are playing an ever growing role in 21s1 century mobility. Roads and vehicles will increasingly be managed in an integrated intelligent transport system relying on collaborative smart vehicles and infrastructure.",3,True
2f30a86,"The first two sections illustrate the nature of the urban governance of primary and public health services, including water, sanitation, waste disposal and food safety, through a review of existing policy and relevant legislation and the institutional arrangements for their implementation. The next two sections focus on the nature of policy implementation in practice by illustrating the nature of urban poverty in Bangladesh and the extent of access the urban poor have to primary and public health services. Based on these illustrations, the penultimate section pinpoints the policy and institutional weaknesses contributing to the limited access of the urban poor to the existing services. The final section of the paper concludes the study and puts forward certain recommendations for improving the situation which have implications for the Asian region at large.",3,True
cd4df79,"All monetary amounts are expressed in 2010 constant dollars. Model results were found to be within the ranges reported in the literature and in conformance with the theoretical expectation that small firms would have a more elastic demand for health insurance than would larger firms. Sensitivity analysis, where different combinations of potential covariates were used to estimate firm utility, was undertaken and the base case model specification was determined to be the most appropriate. A sensitivity analysis was undertaken where the probability of offering a new insurance option (one of the options available through the new insurance exchanges) estimated from the model was adjusted downward to match other estimates in the literature.",3,False
ee0c482,"In 2010, the southern regions, which are typically the most rural regions, show higher rates of population over 15 that have not completed secondary education than northern regions. Over 30% of the population over 15 had not completed primary education in Guerrero, Chiapas, and Oaxaca, which is well above the share of nearly 10% found in Nuevo Leon and Distrito Federal (Table 1.2). The index of marginalisation, used by the Mexican Government as a summary measure of the degree of social and economic deprivation and lack of access to services, is very high in the regions of Guerrero, Chiapas and Oaxaca (Table 1.2).",3,False
f96e599,"In 2014, an amendment Act came into effect that banned the use of animal testing in clinical trials, effectively bringing the industry and product development to a standstill. Retail regulations due to come into force in November 2015 would allow for the licensing of the sale, both wholesale and retail, of psychoactive substances, and the licensing of retail premises. As of 1 June 2015, approximately 37 local authorities had adopted local approved product policies, which provided directions about where psychoactive products may be sold in a particular area. Cannabis is the most trafficked drug throughout Oceania. The Australian Crime Commission has reported that, despite illicit domestic cultivation, the quantity of cannabis seized at the border in the 2013/14 reporting period was the highest in the past decade.",3,False
5063d2b,"For cocaine seizures, the most significant countries of departure for shipments to Europe in 2014 were, in descending order of volume seized, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Argentina. For individual cocaine seizure cases reported in Europe in 2014, the list of countries of departure in the greatest number of cases was headed by Brazil, followed by Colombia and Argentina. Trafficked drugs enter Argentina through the country’s northern provinces, which are vulnerable due to their remote areas and geographical proximity to the Plurinational State of Bolivia and, to a lesser extent, Peru.",3,False
aef0656,"Case management is the main mechanism for integration in many programmes targeting vulnerable youth. For instance, a key feature of the Canadian “BladeRunners” programme is a unique system of 24-hour support, seven days per week, from assigned “BladeRunners coordinators.” The co-ordinators take youth to work sites, check to confirm satisfaction with the work site, refer clients to social service providers, assist with housing and transportation, and counsel the clients about future training and job opportunities (Travkina, 2012). Studies illustrate positive results of the programme especially in terms of improvements in motivation and self-esteem.",3,False
3a0f888,"The tax, originally intended to be set at almost EUR 1 per kilogram of product, was subsequently dropped to EUR 0.75 per kilogram. At the same time, the existing excise tax on soft drinks was raised from 4.5 cents to 7.5 cents per litre. The tax affects both drinks with added sugars and drinks with artificial sweeteners.",3,False
35ac3c1,"A regular job is a paid job that anyone in the community can apply for. The SE model endorses regular jobs for several reasons: Clients prefer paid jobs, and such jobs reduce stigma, inspire self-esteem and enable life in the mainstream. The goal of the employment specialist is to help clients become as independent as possible in their vocational role, while remaining available to provide support and assistance when needed.",3,False
e303881,"Indeed in the UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/260 adopted in April 2016, member states embraced Safe System principles of “shared responsibility to move towards a world free from road traffic fatalities and serious injuries”. The challenge now is to accelerate the implementation of the Global Plan by harnessing the added impetus provided by the SDGs and encouraging all UN member states to achieve the greatest possible reduction in the number of road casualties. In this phase of commitment and renewal in international road safety work, wider application of the Safe System concept can play a leading role. First and foremost, a Safe System helps to overcome the risk of a bias towards behavioural measures in road injury prevention.",3,True
6d60749,"In Latin America and the Caribbean, the association between household wealth and child survival is comparable to that of Asia, with a child from the richest quintile having a relative risk of only 70 per cent that for a child from the poorest quintile. Of the three regions, Africa is the region where the association between household wealth and child survival seems to be the lowest. This finding is consistent with the conclusion that household wealth has a substantial causal impact on levels of child mortality and may account for a large portion of the observed differentials. The knowledge and practices that could save the lives of children tend to be more prevalent among women with a level of education higher than primary.",3,True
8bff957,"In terms of maritime trafficking, remote coastal areas of Honduras and parts of northern Nicaragua are also used. Once offloaded, shipments are moved further north by air.28 In Nicaragua, most cocaine is seized in remote, underpopulated and isolated areas along the Atlantic coast. Drug trafficking by sea remains a major problem in Central America and the Caribbean. In addition, light aircraft operating from clandestine airstrips in remote areas of South America are increasingly being used to transport cocaine.",3,False
0953067,"This being said, information on foreign applications and grants could also help a developing country patent examiner to better identify those particular elements of an invention that do not deserve patent protection. Where the line is drawn between those areas that are the preserve of the patent holder to control, and those areas [i.e. of exceptions and limitations] which the patent holder may not control, is therefore a very important policy question for members.” Exceptions to exclusive rights as considered here apply after a patent has been granted.",3,False
d93e4c7,"Of course, the priority policies and measures that will be most effective depend on the characteristics of each country’s road transport system and the profile of injury they experience. Nevertheless, Safe System principles, based at their core on the laws of physics and the vulnerability of the human body to uncontrolled levels of kinetic energy, have universal applicability. A Safe System, therefore, serves well as a unifying framework for the road safety policies and plans of every UN Member State.",3,True
9dce312,"Missing data were extrapolated only if a country was missing an observation for a specific year and where such missing data points were bounded non-missing data. Annual country-specific data on unemployment were taken from the OECD’s Labour Force Statistics. A separate regression, using the same independent variables, is estimated for each health indicator using robust standard errors, clustered on the basis of the country.",3,False
abd01d6,"Child labour in the construction sector is most prevalent in urban areas. In 2015, most of the children working in construction were boys and had begun work aged 15-18. They did not have a written contract, many were not equipped with proper safety equipment and almost half of them suffered injuries at work. Safety equipment is used only occasionally and over half of them suffered accidents at work.",3,False
59e2f95,"Drug trafficking in West Africa may have an impact on the abuse of certain types of drugs, such as cannabis, cocaine, heroin and amphetamine-type stimulants, in the subregion. The increase in drug trafficking has been accompanied not only by growing illicit drug use, especially among younger people, but also by increasing activities of organized criminal groups. In West and Central Africa, organized crime continues to contribute to social and economic costs by increasing drug trafficking and addiction and by concentrating wealth and power in the hands of comparatively few well-armed criminals.",3,True
3f086c2,"In no event shall the World Health Organization or the International Telecommunication Union be liable for damages arising from its use. Copyediting and proofreading was done by Elisabeth Heseltine and layout and design was done by Aram Melikyan. The origins of the Initiative lie in the response to the Moscow Declaration on NCDs, the Political Declaration on NCDs to identify concrete actions to be undertaken by Member States, and actions of the WHO Global NCD Action Plan 2013-2020, marking when the WHO decided to scale up activities to reduce the global burden of NCDs using innovative technologies.",3,True
7f6fd57,"However, in the case of more complex requests for particular data on the environment (e.g. on transboundary watersheds) requiring the collection of specific data, the Ministry may not have the capacity to do so and may not be in a position to fulfil the request. Requests to NAMEM for multiyear data on air quality can be responded to upon payment (a rate is applied per digit of data). If the request asks for information about a person or a company, such information is considered confidential and is not provided to the requester.",4,False
119d1d0,"Malaysia’s expanding carbon footprint jolted the federal government into including green technology as part of the Ministry of Energy and Water’s portfolio and into launching its National Green Technology Policy in July 2009. The Government is also committed to reduce carbon emissions by 40% within the next ten years, but may find this target may be difficult to reach due to increasing emphasis on Malaysia as a regional aviation hub and extensive private transport. The Penang Transport Council was established in 2009 to improve public transport by moving people instead of cars.",4,False
675d077,The parks in Bergamo aims at modernising the local industries and struggling against lock in processes. They are relatively diversified and host a number of intermediary organisations. The two parks - Servitech and Kilometro Rosso - help build bridges and appear as vehicles for co-operative projects.,4,False
3fe752f,"The electrical and electronics industry (E&E), which accounts for 64% of manufacturing export and 42.6% of FDI, cluster around Penang and Kulin. However, the share of FDI directed to Malaysia within the South East Asia region has diminished from 31% to 11% over the 1985-2005 period. The reduction of FDI flows point to the need to improve the attractiveness of the country and Penang in order to regain competitiveness.",4,False
4cf7658,"Nevertheless, tripartite negotiations between the government and social partners typically do not extend to norms for wages increases. In the past years, government intervention in wage setting has been largely limited to determining the statutory minimum wage, which was kept constant from January 2007 until July 2013, when it increased from CZK 8 000/month to CZK 8 500/month, representing 38% of the median wage, one of the lowest ratios among OECD countries. With effect from 1 January 2013, the government abolished the youth minimum wage, which consisted of two differentiated levels, corresponding to 80% and 90% of the statutory minimum wage for those less than 18 and those between 18 and 21 years old, respectively.",4,False
41fc33b,"This is not an easy task when class size varies greatly due to the existence of rural or remote schools. Difficulties also emerge in the consideration of students’ and schools’ needs in the formula (e.g. curriculum requirements, school equipment, students’ learning pace). A balance needs to be struck between a simple formula, which might fail to capture everything, and a sophisticated formula, which might be difficult to understand and adjustment might result in unexpected and unwelcomed results.",4,True
1f557b2,"The potential benefits of competence-based approaches are not always fully realised. Chapter 2 looks at the identity of professional education and training and proposes new terminology for the sector, it also argues for better data and a clear institutional base for provision. Chapter 3 examines the quality of programmes, and argues that measures in three areas - work-based learning, teacher preparation and career development, and attention to basic skills - would sustain and enhance quality. Chapter 4 looks at qualifications, and makes recommendations designed to make qualifications stronger, to make full use of competence-based approaches, and to strengthen assessment systems.",4,True
b9792a8,"Furthermore, it is not clear, however, that the region's population has the knowledge and skills necessary to “move up the value chain” as needed to compete in the regional and global economy. The significant urban-rural disparities in socioeconomic conditions and educational attainment between Penang and the other states in the Northern Corridor Economic Region also present challenges. Tertiary education institutions should work together towards better alignment of their education provision with the needs of the region.",4,True
704a8d9,"Similarly, Poland has achieved significant improvement in the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). While the performance of Polish 15-year-olds was still below the OECD average in 2000, it now surpasses that average by a sizeable margin. Poland has also made remarkable progress in terms of the health outcomes of its citizens.",4,True
f86dd4b,"Other priorities for Denmark include ensuring that teachers and principals have quality support, feedback and professional development opportunities and that principals take a more active pedagogical role. Completing a framework for evaluation and assessment and using the results in schools are also considered priorities. Building the capacity of municipalities and schools to implement national strategies at the local level and optimising resources in a decentralised context are key issues.",4,True
4d7c23e,"This puts them at a disadvantage when they start school, it also prevents their mothers from working and helping their families out of poverty. The most effective measure that Costa Rica can take to halt rising inequality and give every child a fair chance to succeed in learning and life is to prioritise the expansion of quality ECEC, focusing on the most disadvantaged populations. In 2014, the government established the National Network for Childcare and Development {Red Nacional de Cuido y Desarrollo Infantil, REDCUDI) to improve co-ordination between different public and private providers. The new policy framework to guide the development of services for children aged 0 to 8 represents the first attempt to provide a truly comprehensive, rights-based approach to ECEC in Costa Rica.",4,True
bc64328,"The unemployment rate is consistently higher than the already high national average, 27.8% vs. 24.6% respectively, and unequally distributed between population groups (see Figure 2.1.). A high proportion of discouraged workers, 7.8% of the labour force (90 795 people in 2009), have given up searching for employment. Agricultural and mining employment has dropped, reducing the availability of employment opportunities for the less or non-qualified job seekers.",4,False
e31b9d4,"The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. Among OECD countries, Israel has the highest fertility rate, with 3 children per woman in 2014, while total fertility rates are lower than 1.3 in Greece, Korea, Poland, Portugal and Spain. By 2000, the age had risen to over 26 on average across OECD countries, and by 2013 it had risen again to 29. On average, the proportion of children living with two married parents decreased between 2005 and 2014 - from 72% to 67%.",4,False
dc7e236,"In March 2012, 41 companies including those in high precision machining, manufacture of electronic components, casting, manufacturing of composite based components and special processes were established in Sonora creating over 7 500 jobs. Trac co UK is one of the foreign companies that invested in Sonora, which accounts for their largest investment outside of the UK. Other smaller companies like Pinnacle Aerospace, which works for the CESNA navigation system, are located in Ciudad Obregon’s new Technology Park and also contribute to the local economy and job creation.",4,False
e5e4d51,"However, their development is dependent on people and practices. In classic innovation literature, the diffusion of an innovation develops over time across five major user groups - innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards - until market saturation is achieved. The market is usually seen as the selection mechanism that determines whether an innovation achieves saturation or not.",4,False
236b168,"Shortly after this, the world economy fell into a financial crisis, with a negative influence upon the Vietnamese economy. Many investors stopped investing or limited the scale of production and services. As the Vietnamese economy relies on exports, the global financial crisis resulted in an increase in unemployment (hundreds of thousands people became unemployed as export contracts were cancelled).",4,False
dc20f44,"More importantly, even the industrial placements that do occur appear to be peripheral to the students’ core academic programme and academic staffs responsibilities. The School of Computer Sciences visited by the OECD team is a major exception to this observation. Some universities, such as the University of Aalborg in Denmark, have also taken steps to embed employability and transferable skills in their core curriculum through problem-based learning in multidisciplinary teams (see Box 2.1.) Co-op education in Canadian universities helps students of all disciplines to complete work terms in industry as part of their curriculum (see Box 2.2.",4,True
b1ee825,"First, students need to have a computer with Internet access in order to participate in a MOOC, which means that students from disadvantaged backgrounds may be penalised. Second, students need to possess the skills to learn on their own and to find the time to follow the class. This analysis covers seventeen MOOCs from Harvard and MIT and 841 687 registrants (with 292 852 (35%) registrants who never engaged with the online content).",4,True
58ad879,Some criteria can be introduced nationally and some can be set by regions to better fit local needs. The optimal set of selected indicators is the one that provides a good picture of performance without creating an excessive administrative burden. Achievement of the right balance between these two objectives may be difficult.,4,False
c8f5aca,"Counsellors prepare an education plan jointly with the pupils and their parents to ensure a smooth transition into upper secondary education and employment. Those aged 15-17 are a special target group. In case of school non-attendance, counsellors have to get in touch with the youth’s parents within five days after being notified by the school, and youth must be able to begin an activity within 30 days.",4,True
3e63f84,"Because context is key in the process of policy design and implementation, results may vary from one education system to another, and a specific policy from one country might not have similar results in another. Across many countries, greater decentralisation has devolved responsibilities to regional or local authorities, and schools and ministries of education and their related institutions have taken on a guiding and support role. This has affected policy-making dynamics and incentives for regional and local governments. In these systems, consistency, capacity and leadership at the municipality level are crucial.",4,False
2d5ea0b,"Ensuring all lower secondary schools have the strategies and capacity to support student motivation and improvement. However, from the analysis of the OECD-Norway Steering Group, it appears to be operating too much on the basis of shortterm, weakly connected projects to fix specific problems rather than with an overall strategy for systemic change. Valuable recent initiatives need to be related to one another more strategically. These include new programmes related to principal training and support, whole school improvement, the development of assessments, and improvements in school environments.",4,True
bd211ab,"Second, their alignment across levels ensures coherence and allows children who transfer from ECEC settings to primary school to experience a less disruptive transition. Third, these factors are associated with a rise in the use of specific transitions practices, which are the intentional attempts to help ensure smoother transitions by creating support and familiarity (LoCasale-Crouch et al., In these three ways, they influence the quality of transitions and foster children’s development, well-being and learning outcomes (OECD, 2012).",4,True
7d3b8ce,"This effectively puts limitations on the local freedom to change the tax rate (Lotz et al., Setting the grant level is important for the overall fiscal policy of the central government, while agreeing on changes in the local income tax rate is important for the budgeting process of the individual municipalities. Such a sanction system was institutionalised by a budget law from 2012 (Houlberg et al., Even though these sanctions are related to the overall economic performance and not the economic performance in individual municipalities, Lotz et al. (",4,False
8382719,"They have engaged with local communities and brought about substantial improvements, especially for children. The goal of CBR is to demystify the rehabilitation process and give responsibility back to the individual, family and community. As can be seen from the above guidance, CBR has taken on the 'social model' and moved away from concepts such as normality and developmental benchmarks when dealing with disabled children.",4,False
cf8b397,"This increase contributed to the continued rise in national income and improved the current account balance. In 2011, GDP increased by 1.8% in the face of continued uncertain global conditions. During 2012, conditions improved again and GDP growth is expected to return to its long-term trend of about 3% during 2013 and beyond (ABS, 2012a). Employment growth was strongest in the early stages of the recovery.",4,False
f69c299,"They listed care-giving and family responsibilities among the top three reasons for not participating in the workplace. These did not feature high on the list of reasons for not working cited by men. Furthermore, young people born outside their country of residence are 1.5 times more likely to be NEET than those without immigrant backgrounds.",4,False
2372b44,"A new body could take overall responsibility for the entire VET system at upper secondary and post-secondary levels, including the relationship with social partners. The OECD team noted a widely shared commitment across different stakeholders to work together to address policy reform and to work with industry partners, a newly established council must take advantage of this environment. An earlier Council for Human Resources established in 2000 sought to design a national training and employment strategy. According to the information available in other OECD reports and the background report provided by the local team, a significant consequence of the implementation of this strategy was the reorganisation and consolidation of VET programmes in recent years (OECD, 2010b, SPU-MoHE, 2012:37).",4,True
c33b6fb,"While this topic may not be at the top of governments’ agendas, the practical cases highlight how OER can give access to virtual laboratories, but also contribute to breaking down disparities in educational resources between countries, between educational institutions in the same country, and between formal, non-formal and informal learning settings. Studies and concrete cases show that the adaptation and augmentation of educational resources made possible by OER are necessary to ensure successful integration into new educational settings. Adequate educational resources have an impact on the overall performance of the education system, but the distribution of resources may be unequal at the institutional and national levels, as well as between formal, informal and non-formal learning settings. The advantage of OER is the ease of their distribution - both because of online distribution and open licensing.",4,True
6907e38,"They have both a mainstream formal economy and an unofficial economy within which economic transactions occur outside traditional channels and deliver economic and social benefits (Losby et al., Importantly, the two economies are not separate but overlapping. These can be grouped into four main categories, the illegal sector, the underground sector, the household sector and the informal sector (Bernabe, 2002).",4,False
84d7735,"Data on food insecurity is derived for the Gallup World Poll, in which individuals aged over 15 report on their household experiences. This means the child-centeredness of the indicators from this survey can only be partial, as they are interpreted as proportions of children living with individuals in households reporting specific conditions/experiences, rather than household experiences. Health data, as with previous studies (OECD, 2009, UNICEF, 2007 and others) are most prevalent, and the availability of surveys and series that included different estimates (for example, infant mortality estimates (before age 1 for instance, or age 5 even), or a range of health behaviours (drug use, sexual debut, and smoking)) forced a selection of indicators that 'best fit' the selection criteria outlined above (in consultation with the Report Card Advisory Board members).",4,False
1004772,"We are very thankful to the interpreters, Silvia Martuscelli, Ennia Cucchiarelli (Rome) and Maria Fitzgibbon (Florence), who contributed to the quality of the exchanges with stakeholders. Jessica Lagana, Stefano Catani and Carla Di Paola, at the permanent delegation of Italy to the OECD, Andrea Maccarini, member of the CERI Governing Board, and Francesca Brotto, at the Ministry of Education, Universities and Research, are gratefully acknowledged for their support at various stages of the review. The review team wishes to record its grateful appreciation to the many people who gave time from their busy schedules to inform the review team of their views, experiences and knowledge. The total number of IWBs in Italy is about 70k in 2012.",4,False
de80241,"Getting Choice Right: Ensuring Equity and Efficiency in Education Policy, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC. Handbook of the Economics o/Education, Vol. Panel estimates from PISA”, Journal 0/Develop merit Economics, Vol. Recruiting, retaining, and creating quality teachers”, Nordic Economic Policy Review, Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen, pp.",4,True
688b661,"In addition, an ECO channel used to broadcast environment-related programmes, however, its content changed recently and it no longer includes such programmes. The total number of cable TV users has increased from 89,689 in 2007 to 458,735 in the third quarter of 2017. At the local level, TV broadcasts are not used to transmit information about public consultations organized as part of EIA for mining, construction or other projects planned in the area, with a view to offering an opportunity for participation and better engaging the nomadic population in decision-making.",4,False
c5f647d,"It is true that digitalisation has contributed to the rise in populism and the establishment of a post-factual world that can work against rational policy making. But the very same forces, whether in the form of more and better data or new statistical and analytical tools, have also massively expanded the scope and power of social research to create a more evidence-based environment for the development of effective policies. The first PISA assessment in 2000 was able to explain about a third of the performance variation among schools across the participating countries, but in 2015 that figure had risen to 85%. That means that most of the performance differences among schools can now be statistically associated and explained, with data from students, parents, teachers and school principals, even if the causal nature of many of those relationships remains still insufficiently understood. One reason for the difficulty in reforming education is simply the scale and reach of the sector. Schools are among the biggest areas of public spending.",4,True
02f1442,"More worryingly, in the countries that distributed the PISA parent questionnaire, disadvantaged parents are significantly more likely than advantaged parents to report that ""low expenses"" and ""financial aid"" are very important factors to consider when choosing a school. While parents from all backgrounds cite academic achievement as an important consideration when choosing a school for their children, advantaged parents are, on average, nine percentage points more likely than disadvantaged parents to cite this criterion as ""very important"". These differences suggest that disadvantaged parents may believe that their choice of schools for their child is limited, due to the cost of some schools.",4,True
c124a3b,"Rachel Linden supervised the publication process. This publication draws on interviews carried out during a week-long review visit on 11-16 March 2012 (Annex II), using information provided to the review team as well as a range of other OECD reports, such as the OECD Studies on Water - Meeting the Water Reform Challenge (2012), OECD Territorial Reviews - Chihuahua (2012), OECD Economic Survey Mexico (2011), OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy Mexico (2009) and OECD Reviews of Tertiary Education Mexico (2008). The OECD would like to thank in particular Gonzalo Rodriguez-Villanueva, the former rector of ITSON (the Instituto Tecnologico de Sonora), whose determination and insight made this review possible and whose efforts to transform ITSON into an engine of Southern Sonora’s development provide inspiration to university leaders globally.",4,False
cd0b1ca,"According to estimates for 2012 co-financing represented 11% of the total budget in private-subsidised schools (Paredes et al., The recently approved Inclusion Law (Ley de Inclusion) eliminates shared funding in private-subsidised schools. The implementation of the law will be gradual and schools will be compensated financially through a new grant (see also Chapter 1).",4,False
1f2f385,"The economic dimension was discussed in the previous chapter, while the cognitive and educational components are the focus of subsequent chapters. There is also the question of how social it is understood to be, as opposed to so many traits attaching to individuals. In our view, while the measurement of well-being might often rely on charting characteristics of individuals, well-being understood in this multidimensional way is fundamentally about relationships and the nature of social relations. Such definitions as there are coalesce around the holistic.",4,False
54446ec,"New firms are those most likely to generate the most radical innovations and successfully bring them to market, while also creating spillover effects for others. Targeted public support may help those firms that managed to weather the crisis and raise their productivity to now focus on the need to acquire new skills and knowledge assets. The country is less innovative than it used to be.",4,False
4b6821c,"Equity in education is achieved when personal or social circumstances, such as gender, ethnic origin or family background, do not hinder achieving educational potential (fairness) and all individuals reach at least a basic minimum level of skills (inclusion) (OECD, 2012a). Evidence shows that investing in equity should be a priority, as it pays off for economies, societies and individuals. Policies addressing inequities that arise from school failure and personal circumstances (e.g. students’ background, geographic inequalities, etc.)",4,True
507fb63,"Adult participation in lifelong learning strongly depends on educational attainment and age. Despite a slight increase in recent years, the participation of older workers in adult programmes is modest, inhibiting their employment prospects (OECD, 2009b). Adults with low educational attainment (individuals whose highest attained degree is primary or below) show considerably less interest in adult learning activities, the difference between highly educated individuals and individuals with low educational attainment in adult education participation is the highest in the EU (IMAD, 2010).",4,True
ac5215a,"Inspections are mainly conducted through interviews, analysis of internal documentation and results of staff self-evaluations. Self-reported surveys and self-reflection reports or journals are commonly used in self-evaluations, and video feedback is not often used. Teamwork and process quality are regularly monitored in peer reviews.",4,False
54e9fe3,"In this context, quality education and skills formation that equip individuals with labour market-relevant skills are more important than ever. This report finds that the progress different countries have made in providing educational and skills development opportunities to disadvantaged individuals has varied widely. Only a few countries have been successful in providing lifelong learning opportunities. Most have offered sporadic interventions at certain stages of life, rather than continued support over the course of an individual’s lifespan.",4,True
c3f3168,"A recent EU Lifelong Learning Survey, which was carried out as an ad hoc module to the EU Labour Force Survey, places German workers in the lower middle range of EU countries in participation in formal and informal continuing learning activities. As in most countries, it is the more qualified workers who are the most active participants, raising a concern about depreciation of skills in a rapidly changing labour market. Also, those who do know that they have basic skill problems may be reluctant to admit it (Basic Skills Agency, 1997).",4,True
c254881,"This data shortage makes it difficult to identify the gaps in detail and thus to plan and target provision. This very good practice was characterised by highly qualified, knowledgeable and committed professional staff, clear curriculum guidelines and quality learning through play. In one childcare centre the impact of the local community alongside commitment at district level was very positive and care, education, health and social work staff were making a real difference to the lives of some very vulnerable children.",4,True
6b7c177,"Experts know from previous research that there are children who are at risk of not making a successful transition to school, and the gap between these children and their peers increases progressively. Australia’s National Early Childhood Development Strategy -Investing in the early years (Australian Government, 2009a) - also recognises the need to build a solid evidence base as one of its six reform priority areas. The results from the 2009 AEDI are now providing a wealth of information which is being used to influence early childhood initiatives at the community, state and national levels, as well as inform early childhood policy development.",4,True
c3771b8,"Preschool education can be increased by one year. Preschool education facilities include nurseries, nursery-kindergartens, kindergartens, nursery-sanatoria, kindergarten-sanatoria and preschool centres for children’s development. Levels 1 and 2 constitute basic education. After basic education, graduates can complete their secondary education (two years) in secondary schools and lyceums.",4,True
5944e00,"Studies on maternal employment during early childhood from the United States cannot be assumed to generalise to other countries: The United States is unique in the lack of guaranteed maternity leave, contributing to an earlier return of new mothers to the labour force. Studies from multiple countries that capitalise on policy variations and reforms related to maternity leave generally suggest little impact on child outcomes based on the length of leave mothers can access (Baker and Milligan, 2011 [i63i, Dustmann and Schonberg, 2012[i64j, Liu and Skans, 2010[i65i, Washbrook etal., However, mothers’ return to work within six months of children’s birth may be negatively associated with children’s cognitive outcomes, especially if mothers work full-time.",4,False
9e16a4e,"Human capital is not only a determinant of economic growth and productivity, it is also one of social cohesion and well-being because with higher-level skills and quality jobs, people tend to live healthier. Rural areas of the state tend to be more marginalised than the urban, particularly metropolitan, areas. Territorial disparities are also noticed in students’ school performance as children living in the central and southern parts of the state tend to perform more poorly than those living in the northern part of Morelos.",4,True
555c2f6,"In most OECD and partner countries, boys are at least 40% more likely than girls to enrol in vocational education (Figure 2.a), and students whose parents did not attain tertiary education are more likely to choose upper secondary vocational programmes than general programmes (Box B3.1). By including formal and non-formal education, this indicator captures participation in any type of programme that aims to improve knowledge, skills and competencies from a personal, civic, social or employment-related perspective (UNESCO, 2016(2]). In most OECD and partner countries, at least 20% of 25-64 year-olds have participated in formal or non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, with participation among men and women varying greatly across countries.",4,True
0fa5540,"We would also like to thank Emesto Flores-Rivera (ITSON) who, during his 15-month secondment to the OECD, supported the success of the OECD reviews, while making preparations for the Sonora review. We thank the lead co-ordinator and his team as well as other active local counterparts for this review: Jose Manuel Ochoa-Alcantar, Manuel Ricardo Lugo-Cruz and Haziel Misael Ayala-Cecena from ITSON, Benjamin Burgos-Flores from the University of Sonora (UNISON, Universidad de Sonora), Jose Angel Vera-Noriega from the Centre for Research on Nutrition and Development (CIAD, Centro de Investigation en Alimentation y Desarrollo) and Angel Alberto Valdes-Cuervo, ITSON-CIAD. We also thank the following representatives from the Mixed Funds (Fondo Mixto) of the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT, Consejo Nacional de Cienciay Tecnologia) in the state of Sonora: Juan Alvarez-Lopez, Francisco Javier Cevallos-Rojas and Jose Manuel Zatarain-Dominguez.",4,False
d8a59c4,"On a scale of 1 (very low) to 5 (very high), “High innovation” corresponded to scores of 4 and 5. The indicators presented below capture innovation as a significant change in key practices. On average, more than two-thirds of tertiary graduates (69%) across all sectors perceived their workplace to be highly innovative for at least one type of innovation.",4,False
7a22d8a,"There could well be much frustration and discontent - among students, parents and employers - if upper secondary and tertiary education is not reconstructed and made more relevant to Indonesia’s economic circumstances. Significant steps have been taken to widen access to and improve the quality of early childhood education, building on initiatives since 2001, and following the 2010 “Grand Design”, a blueprint for the development of early childhood care and education (ECCE). Much more rapid expansion is needed, however, if Indonesia is to realise the targets it has set in its Grand Design blueprint. The allocation of funding to early childhood development and education remains relatively low at some 1.2% of the education budget, compared with the international benchmark of 4-5%.",4,True
4a1137e,"This results in high levels of entrepreneurship in LDCs according to the former, but low levels according to the latter. However, since own-account workers and family workers comprise 97 per cent of self-employment, only a small fraction of the self-employed can be considered truly entrepreneurial. The prevalence of informal enterprises is difficult to measure, the scale of the shadow economy, at around 35 per cent of gross domestic product, provides a conservative indicator.",4,False
d2845d2,"In addition, the college provides college-level opportunities for special needs adults who by Israeli law are entitled to state-supported education till the age of 21. The college also has a centre for giftedness and excellence which prepares students to teach these special needs students and provides services to the region's teachers and schools in this field. Key needs of the Arab community in Israel were recently identified in a market survey that helped the institution to identify its focus areas: occupation therapy, computer science, environmental science, entrepreneurship and business management, theology and Holy Land studies, speech therapy, biotechnology and nutrition science. Study programmes integrate practice, education and theory.",4,True
44f68eb,"Public higher education institutions receive funding directly from the national government in the form of a subsidy for education and research. The Czech School Inspectorate indicates that the proportion of publicly funded schools has decreased recently, while privately funded schools and gymnasia have increased. Church schools are fully supported from national funds. There is little private funding for vocational education and training programmes.",4,True
06edd5c,"The IDA was instrumental in establishing the International Disability Caucus, the network of global, regional and national organisations of persons with disabilities and allied NGOs, which became a key player in the negotiation of the UNCRPD. The IDA is now a major international player in support of the UNCRPD at international, national and regional levels. The IDA governing body is composed of the chairs of all its member organisations. It meets at least twice annually, usually in Geneva or New York. The IDA, with its unique composition as a network of the foremost international disability rights organisations, is the most authoritative representative voice of persons with disabilities and is acknowledged as such by the UN system both in New York and Geneva. The IDA is also committed to building the capacity of national DPOs with special attention to the global South, in order to support national efforts toward ratification, implementation and monitoring of the UNCRPD.",4,False
e056a30,"These results hold for both genders, even when we distinguish between on-the-job and off-the-job training. Interestingly, the negative effect of a vocational curriculum is larger in absolute value in countries with higher employment protection. It is often said that the presence of vocational tracks helps keeping students with limited academic attitudes in school. Our empirical evidence shows that upper secondary VET is associated to substantially higher hourly earnings, employability and skills with respect to lower education.",4,True
53db67b,"Five dimensions usefully define well-being in young people: cognitive, psychological, physical, social and material. This chapter focuses especially on the social, psychological and physical dimensions. A number of indicators give rise to concern about the wellbeing of Indigenous young people, although data are inadequate to build a full picture.",4,False
647e79a,"All requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to rights@occd.org.___________________________ The focus is on enquiry-based science teaching, teacher-directed instruction, adaptive teaching and teacher feedback. The outcomes of interest include students’ science performance, and students’ dispositions and attitudes towards science. This approach could help close the gender gap between girls and boys when it comes to attitudes towards science and to the decision to pursue a career in STEM-related fields. The results also show that teacher-directed instruction is a reliable strategy that is positively associated with students’ science outcomes regardless of school climate and resources. Adaptive teaching is positively correlated with science performance in the majority of countries, particularly in countries known for the use of personalised learning approaches, while teacher feedback is weakly but positively associated with science performance once students’ achievement in mathematics and reading is accounted for.",4,True
9e1fd32,"Their average scores in all three key subject areas in the 2006 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) fare relatively well compared with other OECD countries (Figure 1). The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)2 confirm that Slovenian pupils compare favourably against their peers in the participating countries, with slightly higher achievement in science than in reading and mathematics. Trends in average science, mathematics and literacy scores of fourth and eighth-grade students have been rather favourable as well, with scores on TIMSS and PIRLS assessments, particularly in science and mathematics, improving substantially.",4,True
bfbcec6,"Welfare states may also experience the financial burden of supporting individuals who are constantly cycling in and out of low-paid work. Such costs to the state can be related to unemployment benefits and other out of work cash transfers and any in-work cash transfers intended to supplement the income of low-paid workers from low-income households (Thompson, 2015).To reduce the number of working poor, as well as to cut down on public expenditure costs in the long run, governments should look towards policy solutions that improve job security and increase the wages of low-paid-workers (Europa, 2013). According to a working paper on the relationship between age and skills using data from the Survey of Adult Skills (Paccagnella, 2016), a negative relationship between literacy and age exists. Literacy declines with age, especially after age 45. In Denmark, Ireland, Norway and Sweden, literacy proficiency falls substantially with age. Adults aged 55 to 64 have 18% to 23% lower literacy proficiency than 25-34 year-olds, even after various socio-economic and demographic factors are taken into account.",4,True
3e5e70f,"In literacy, inequality is at the OECD average and has widened over time (SNAE, 2013a). The socio-economic background of pupils influences their results in mathematics somewhat less than the OECD average, but there is room for improvement, exemplified by Finland and Estonia, who achieve both higher results and greater equity. Variations between schools in PISA results are limited in all the Nordics.",4,True
41733c0,"This would help public employment services to identify the most appropriate course of action for each job-seeker. Differences in returns as proficiency increases vary across countries, more so than for employment status. For instance, within countries, the top 25% best-paid Korean and Japanese workers scoring at Level 2 in literacy earn more than the median hourly wage of those scoring at Level 4 or 5 (Figure 6.4 [LJ).",4,False
92fe65f,"In the Slovak Republic, Italy, the Russian Federation and Poland, less than 20% of low-skilled adults reported participation in any form of adult education. The gap in participation rates between adults with low and high literacy proficiency is on average 44 percentage points (30% compared to 74% respectively). In the case of formal education, this difference is 12 percentage points (6% compared to 18%). In relative terms, however, the difference in rates is even greater in the case of formal education, where highly proficient adults are three times more likely to participate than adults with low proficiency.",4,True
8304632,"Sustainable development implies a radical reconfiguration of patterns of production and consumption, and changes in the relationship between societies and the natural environment. It therefore requires the structural transformation of economies, especially in LDCs, which need to transition to high-productivity economic activities and sectors in order to tackle the traditional challenges of economic and social development in a new way that mainstreams environmental considerations. The concept of sustainable development links three dimensions of sustainability — economic, social and environmental — and the 2030 Agenda emphasizes the unity of, and mutual support between, these dimensions.",4,False
0d0d8d6,"With a fixed timetable of regular assessments, Costa Rica might consider alternating the subjects assessed at lower secondary level to enable the evaluation of more of the curriculum, including the more innovative dimensions of education for global citizenship and sustainable development, for example. At no point has the assessment sampled the entire census of schools in a way that would enable school leaders, teachers, students, parents and the local community to understand whether their institution is achieving national learning objectives, or whether it is more or less successful than other similar schools. The national assessment could help teachers understand how the new national competence-based curriculum can be tested in practice and ensure classroom-based assessments are setting the same standards across the country.",4,True
b0e8dfd,"There is a need to go beyond the false dichotomy of voluntary/ forced migration, and to recognise that forced migration can offer a valuable pool of qualified labour (in Chanda, 2010: 29). A clear division of institutional responsibility is required’ (Betts and Kaytaz, 2009: 26). Furthermore, there are ‘hard law norms - in terms of International Human Rights Law - but what is needed is a “soft law” consolidation of those norms to highlight their implications for survival migration’ (in Chanda, 2010: 28).",4,False
affc386,"In 2000-2009 280 projects specifically addressed disability, targeting people with both mental and physical disabilities. The main activities included capacity building, policy development, CBR, promotion of human rights, de-institutionalisation, social inclusion and improving the collection of data. It has worked with local and national associations in many countries.",4,False
87b6a57,"Considering many parents reported that they felt more comfortable touring schools in groups, this intervention is especially important for migrant parents who are navigating the system for the first time. For example, voluntary programmes encourage parents to enrol their children in highly segregated schools in order to create a better balance and promote diversity. Some communities are providing awareness education for non-immigrants parents to disarm stigmatisation and fears of integration measures influencing then- children negatively (Bunar, 2017(72]). For example, in groups, native Dutch families apply to high performing and high minority population schools to ensure their child is not the only native Dutch student in the classroom (Walraven, 2013(68]). In addition, these parents and communities interact with their local schools about curriculum, differentiation for students and afterschool programmes so as to make the learning environment productive for all students.",4,True
2854c80,"Table 5.2 shows how, for 13 European OECD countries and Canada, a positive socio-economic environment and parental health behaviour are associated with better health at childhood, while malnutrition is heavily detrimental. Father’s employment is negatively associated with poor child health in Canada. While malnutrition has an impact on immediate health, previous hunger episodes also affect self-assessed health and hospitalisation.",4,False
d3ee179,"Girls reported more positive attitudes towards relationships, meaning that they tend to be more interested in the opinions of others and want others to succeed. Boys, on the other hand, are more likely to see the instrumental benefits of teamwork and how collaboration can help them work more effectively and efficiently. Students who reported more positive student-student interactions score higher in collaborative problem solving, even after considering the socio-economic profile of students and schools. Schools that succeed in building on these attitudes by designing collaborative learning environments might be able to engage disadvantaged students in new ways.",4,True
66d7228,"The Penang Government could be a catalyst in the birth of a cultural and creative hub. Creative sector is a key economic driver globally, in several major economies, the value of the cultural industries ranges between 3% and 6% of the total economy. Rich cultural traditions, ample recreational and entertainment facilities provide enhanced pull factors. Equally, Penang’s linguistic diversity and its population’s facility with languages such as English, Mandarin, Tamil and Malaya are important capacities useful in the regional positioning of Penang.",4,False
7848de4,"A pilot of this programme in 2010 supported nine projects. The extent of the benefit depends on the score obtained in the university selection test (PSU). It includes at the minimum the payment of 100% of tuition fees if the student is above a given cut-off score. But it can also include a monthly stipend (if above a higher cut-off score) and a semester studying abroad (if above an even higher cut-off score). There are indications that, as a result of this initiative, the average PSU score of students entering teacher education has increased in 2011. A further initiative is the “Choose to Teach” (Elige Educar) campaign which seeks to promote teaching through a variety of actions, including the monitoring of the social status of teaching, scholarships for individuals with experience outside education who would like to join teaching, and interventions in schools to provide information about teaching and raise awareness among school agents of the importance of teaching as a profession.",4,True
b109d59,"Unweighted average of EU member countries that are also members of the OECD, excluding Luxembourg. Although, there is some portability of financial support, it is unlikely to provide sufficient means to study abroad without additional private resources. For example, students studying abroad for a limited period, primarily through the ERASMUS programme, can continue to receive scholarships (merit-based, Zois, and means-tested, national scholarship) under the same conditions as the students remaining in Slovenia (for further details on the scholarships, see Box 3.4 of OECD, 2009b). If students go abroad to study in programmes that are not available in Slovenia or they can prove that studying abroad will substantially enhance their expertise and employability, they also can claim the national scholarships for the entire duration of studies.",4,True
d7f15fc,"However, the literature and debate (especially from Indigenous scholars and representative organisations) highlight distinct and broader criteria of educational and learning success, such as positive self-concept, strong cultural identity, happiness and confidence. There is a widespread concern among Indigenous scholars and community advocates about loss of language, the importance of language and cultural preservation and revitalisation, and a desire to see greater social harmony, anti-racist sentiment and cultural respect (Dreise and Perrett, forthcoming, CCL, 2007). Indigenous research also points to identity, wisdom and traditions as critical in shaping identity and character, and sustaining deep relationships between kin, land and water.",4,True
cec7282,"The Magneton track provides for dual cooperation between academic groups and industrial companies. The aim is to transfer technologies resulting from academic research. Grants are up to USD 800 000. A kibbutz (plural kibbutzim) is a collective community in Israel that was traditionally based on agriculture. Today, farming has been partly surpassed by industrial plants and high-tech enterprises.",4,False
69ea6b4,"It also demonstrates that individuals with similar levels of educational attainment vary in their information-processing proficiency, which may reflect differences in innate ability as well as variation in the quality and degree of skills acquisition, both in and outside the education system. All other things being equal, educational attainment and specific skills related to field of study have a strong effect on entry wages, although the education-wage relationship weakens somewhat with age/experience. College graduates receive sizeable wage premia, although those who have degrees in the humanities or in teacher training and education earn less than social science graduates.",4,True
f947586,"There are also some differences in the regulations for personnel management between DAEMs (or DEMs) and municipal corporations with delegated authority. The purchase of goods and services is regulated through the Purchasing Law (Ley de Compras). In the private-subsidised sector, all staff, including teachers and principals, is subject to the Labour Code.",4,False
6338f0e,"Teachers have financial and career-based incentives to participate in short training courses. They can also participate in activities organised by the subject-specific pedagogical advisor in each region, but they hardly ever receive direct support in the classroom as there is only one advisor for 800 teachers. Further tests of teachers’ knowledge of science and mathematics are planned for 2017. The appraisal is expected to look at teachers' professional development, attitudes, human relations, and discipline. High success rates suggest that the appraisal is largely seen as an administrative requirement rather than a process to improve teachers' performance (MEP, 2016). In 2015, virtually all teachers (98%) received an excellent or very good appraisal, and less than 0.1% (15 teachers in Costa Rica) received a regular or unsatisfactory performance appraisal.",4,True
a08e71f,"They encourage training provision which is sensitive to labour market needs, familiarise employers with vocational programmes and qualifications, and help teachers of vocational subjects to keep up-to-date.1 It follows that when this type of systematic approach is first implemented in a country, it should help to build a new culture of partnership with employers in the delivery of vocational education and training, a culture which is found in the world’s strongest skills systems. It is also a critical support to other recommendations in this review, including those encouraging vocational teachers to work more closely with employers (see the next section in this chapter) and to negotiate some proportion of the curriculum locally (see Chapter 4). It is commonly argued that employers will not offer the placements and that it is only possible where it is already part of the working culture.",4,True
8ca5c9a,"Policies that increase and improve family contact are also essential as well as policies to prevent and respond to sexual harassment and rape of male and female prisoners. Female prisoners are likely to find strip searches particularly traumatic, and policies regarding strip searching should be separately and carefully formulated as it regards male and female prisoners. Other matters to be considered include: arrangements for privacy when people are required to remove their clothing, privacy in toilets and showers, use of private locks on cells, provision of hygiene items for women, and minimising indignity in the way urine and other samples are collected for drug testing. Poor prison conditions, lack of proper care and facilities, and the high level of stress that accompanies incarceration may place at risk both the health of a pregnant woman and that of her unborn child. Pregnant women should only be held in prison in the most extreme circumstances, such as when there is a concrete threat of violent crime. Special provisions should be made for ante and post-natal care and treatment, and babies should not be born in prison.",5,True
c6ef11d,"In Latin America there is strong evidence of the conditions in which young people enter the labour market. Youth unemployment has traditionally been higher than in other age groups, and it is usually the first to rise in times of economic crisis and the last to fall in booms (Tokman, 1997, ECLAC, 2010). In other words, ""the young are among those who bear the brunt of the recessionary and regressive effects of crises"" (ECLAC, 2012a, p. 89). As a result, adolescents and youths are still overrepresented among the unemployed.",5,False
fdc3424,"While all female-headed households with outstanding loans used land as collateral, male-headed households also used livestock, houses and other property (UNCTAD, 2014). Major obstacles include target groups’ lack of awareness and inability to comply with lending requirements. Cooperatives and other civil society organizations could serve as a bridge between these lending institutions and individual women, but establishment and registration procedures are often cumbersome and involve high transaction costs, and civil society organizations often lack the financial and human resources necessary to perform such a role on a large scale (UNCTAD, 2014).",5,True
8eb1668,"A growing proportion of initiation ceremonies are being devised by Christian groups to teach young people about what is expected of them as they enter adulthood - including pre-marital sexual abstinence - as an alternative to the alleged sexual focus of teaching in traditional practice (Munthali, 2007). Ncaca, 2014).The last decade has seen increasing public debate about whether and how male circumcision should be continued following media reports of problems including commercialisation, malpractice by guardians, and deaths or permanent injury from botched circumcision (Ntombana, 2011b). However, studies also report the beneficial role of circumcision against sexually transmitted infections (Lagarde et al.,",5,True
0277e8f,"Evidence demonstrates that when a critical mass of women participates in decision-making, their contributions and needs are more likely to be recognized and addressed. Even though attention has largely focused on women's leadership and participation in national parliaments, there is a pressing need to realize women’s leadership throughout the daily lives of all Africans - in the home, in the economy and markets, and in society as broadly defined. Reducing inequalities in access to health and education, in addition to giving women greater choice in family decisionmaking, can have significant benefits for women and important inter-generational benefits.",5,True
4cbe504,"Although a number of countries, mostly in Europe, that have adopted such measures have experienced modest increases in fertility between 2000-2005 and 2005-2010 (United Nations, 2013a), the implementation and effectiveness of such measures have been difficult to ascertain. While the percentage of Governments with policies to raise fertility has increased steadily from just 9 per cent in 1976 to 27 per cent in 2013, the percentage of Governments with policies to lower fertility increased from 27 per cent in 1976 to 42 per cent in 1996, and then remained at 43 per cent in 2013. During this time, the percentage of Governments that did not have policies to influence fertility has declined steadily from 52 per cent in 1976 to 13 per cent in 2013 (table III.l). In 1976, only about one in every five Governments in more developed regions had policies to raise fertility, but by 2013 this proportion had risen steadily to more than two thirds.",5,False
1db7b23,"Legislation in some countries may have changed since this period, and can be expected to change in the future. Such instances should be considered and factored in during any follow'-up discussions at the country level or in international fora. Eventually, this work may also call for a revised draft to acknowledge progress and impacts made. It offers policy recommendations for boosting women’s employment and entrepreneurship through changes to legislative and institutional frameworks. The recommendations are general and will need tailoring to the particular context of each country.",5,True
3d72c07,"Second, qr is less sensitive than ols to outliers in the dependent variable since it minimizes the weighted sum of absolute deviations. Moreover, when the error terms are non-normal, qr also gives a more efficient estimator than least squares. Lastly, qr has a linear programming representation that makes estimation easy.",5,False
608282b,"Despite this progress, bilateral aid to LDCs fell by 3.9 per cent in real terms. However, remittances to developing countries fell in 2016 for a second consecutive year, declining by 2.4 per cent over 2015. This section provides a few highlights of these interconnections in the context of the theme and Goals under review at the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development in July 2017.",5,False
1d87f56,"These results were related to shifts in power and changes in norms, often in relation to traditional practices. An example is the establishment of villages free of female genital mutilation. Transformative outcomes generally emerge from a change process that has several stages, moving from awareness raising, to attitude change, to change in behaviour and rules, often accompanied by institutionalization of a new norm (as described in the Gender@Work framework). In such cases, UNDP was one actor among many that contributed to the end result.",5,True
3712d3c,"Let us shift the focus away from mutilation to education,"" the Secretary-General said at a special event in February 2016 marking the 2030 commitment. "" Let us make a world where FGM stands for Focus on Girls’ Minds. To fast-track progress, in March 2016, UNFPA and UNICEF launched the Global Programme to Accelerate Action to End Child Marriage.",5,True
9ec2352,"In this way, the Council harmonises strategies of relevant organisations and provides for transfer of information and a sharing of resources. Additionally, there are extended plenary meetings twice per year with the mandate of nurturing political leadership. The CEO oversees the technical task teams for programmes (i.e. policy and legislation, research, prevention), monitoring and evaluation, administration, communication and resource mobilisation teams.",5,False
8078aa6,"The Inter-Departmental Co-ordination Group assumes responsibility for: promoting co-operation between ministries, adopting a federal plan of action, preparing an intermediary' report and a final report at the end of the term, and exchanging good practices and promoting instruments useful to enforcing the law. The representatives of the ministries participating in the co-ordination group are also appointed as gender focal points in their respective entities. They receive compulsory training on gender mainstreaming and are tasked with ensuring follow-up on the diverse measures foreseen by the law (e.g, gender statistics, gender-responsive budgeting and the “gender test”).",5,True
9ddba27,"Country Group 4: France, Iceland, Norway and Sweden Source: OECD calculations based on European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU SILC) 2012. Country' Group 2: Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia. Country Group 3: the Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia and the Slovak Republic.",5,False
0faaf79,"Addressing structural inequalities also requires an approach that cuts across silos. For example, promoting women’s business ownership requires a smart policy mix, which, among others, takes into consideration gender impacts of regulatory policies and competition frameworks, while removing potential barriers in access to public procurement and finance. These efforts must be coupled with an enabling social infrastructure (e.g. accessible and affordable child/elderly care) to reduce the burden of unpaid care work, as well as partnerships between the public and private sectors.",5,True
e5b92a8,"Providing employers with a code of good practice can help them to navigate the existing legislation, which can often be complex, and reduce non-compliance. Lowering the burden of proof for plaintiffs and shifting it to employers can be a step in the right direction, but should be accompanied by measures to help complainants gather the necessary evidence to initiate the case and sustain the costs of the trial (OECD, 2008, Chapter 3). In the early 2000s, most European countries lowered the burden of proof for plaintiffs, who are now only required to provide evidence of differential treatment without having to prove that it was indeed due to discrimination.",5,False
33bf1f2,"In a mega-city such as Lagos, Nigeria, planners are trying to redevelop neighbourhoods and create more cohesive, manageable and livable communities. Nations like Ethiopia and India have launched campaigns to end child marriages and prevent life-threatening adolescent pregnancies. With good planning and thoughtful policies. When young people can claim their rights to health, education and decent working conditions, they become a powerful force for economic development and positive change. Throughout the developing world, social scientists and policymakers want to make the most of large youthful populations, for the sake of hopeful young people themselves as well as in the interests of economic growth and development.",5,True
52819df,"As we would expect, these proportions increase with age such that between half and three quarters of older adolescents are working, or seeking work. However, adolescents frequently combine school and work. Research in South Africa and Zimbabwe on distribution shows that most working adolescents live in very poor households in rural areas and are engaged in subsistence agriculture, many combining this with domestic work (including care) and commercial agriculture (Robson, 2004, Bray, 2012, Dawes et al.,",5,False
030b9d4,"Enrolment is increasing in all regions of the world but still varies widely between and within regions. In Central and Eastern Europe, and Latin America and the Caribbean, enrolment is high due to a historically strong public education sector. In Central Asia, the Arab States and sub-Saharan Africa, enrolment rates are very low, although there are some intra-regional variations. Even in regions with better coverage, the inclusion of marginalized populations is still a challenge. In the Arab States, private providers cover almost half of all enrolment and in Africa around 60 percent. In Kenya, for example, the government programmes target children aged 4 to 5 years, even though the policy framework identifies children within the 0 to 5 age range as intended beneficiaries.",5,False
028bcf5,"This is despite (or because of) its attendant market deregulation, attrition of the public realm, and the increasingly crowded and competitive scramble for an advantageous spot in the emerging international division of labour. It has largely followed a supply-side approach, one that overlooks the fact that individuals are already integrated into the global economy, but on exclusionary terms that stem from prevailing rules, norms and policies. The global policy narrative on women’s economic empowerment, which seems to focus largely on their inclusion in markets, is an example of this limited perspective.",5,True
83ab602,"Marshall defined social citizenship as ""including social rights, these being the right to a modicum of economic welfare and security and right to live the life of a civilized being (quoted in Jenson, 2006:6)"" (Poppel, M. 2014: 127). You can be provided for by your family, by charity organizations or by friends. Fulfilling the norms of a given community gives access to its resources.",5,False
7f36e5e,"Evidence brought together in this review suggests that such attempts would also require working with existing power structures at local levels, and perhaps more broadly. It also requires substantial local choice, power, management and ultimately ownership of both the ""trigger"" (the actual stimulus for change) and the process (Panter-Brick et al., 2006).Thus far, parenting programmes are the chosen trigger through which the feasibility of offering parenting support is being tested in the region. However, there are many other models that exist around the world (Daly et al.,",5,False
1a293d4,"Key factors in not completing the initial process were being disbelieved or fear of the police and the criminal justice system. For example, it is not always clear whether cases were “lost” or “dropped”. Dropped cases are those where either the police or prosecutor makes a clear and explicit decision not to proceed with a case.",5,False
a483699,"According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which launched its Green Economy Initiative in 2008, a green economy is one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities, it is low-carbon, resource-efficient and socially inclusive (UNEP, 2011). This general definition integrates economic, social and environmental concerns in ways akin to sustainable development. Yet in practice, as the World Survey shows, there are many versions of green economy thinking. It is argued that the emerging green technology economy will be worth $4.2 trillion annually by 2020.’3 Other strands emphasize market-based approaches to environmental protection through financial valuation of natural capital, payments for ecosystem services and schemes for trading carbon and biodiversity credits and offsets.",5,False
4ef68c2,"The concept of critical mass as applied to women’s political representation, and the UN targets that have flowed from it, have played an important role in supporting countries in the adoption of gender quotas in various spheres of the public and private sectors. According to data provided by the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU, 2015), the global average of women in national parliaments has nearly doubled in the past 20 years from 11.3% in 1995 to 22.1% in 2015 (a rise of 10.8 points). However, recent socio-political studies (Childs and Krook, 2008), as well as IPU data (IPU, 2015) confirm that the achievement of a critical mass is no longer seen as the sole target of efforts to bring about gender-equal participation in positions of leadership.",5,True
8e8db44,"Intimate partner violence against women: experiences from a woman-focused development programme in matlab, Bangladesh, Journal of Health Population and Nutrition 23(1): 95-101. Combating gender-based violence and enhancing economic empowerment of women in Northern Uganda through cash transfers. Love on the Rocks: Domestic Violence and Alcohol Abuse in Rural Mexico. The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy: 8(1), article 43.",5,True
7892613,"It is an average of the squares of its five sub-indices (equation 10). It ranges from 0, indicating very low levels of discrimination, to 1, indicating very high levels of discrimination. Three-years average (2009-11). Three-years average (2009-11). Three-years average (2009-11). Three-years average (2009-11).",5,False
a7fff45,"Emergency contraception is a method to prevent pregnancy within five days of unprotected intercourse, failure or misuse of a contraceptive (such as a forgotten pill), rape or coerced sex. It disrupts ovulation and reduces the likelihood of pregnancy by up to 90 per cent. It cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg, harm a developing embryo or end a pregnancy. Even in countries where emergency contraception is available, adolescents may be reluctant to obtain it from traditional health outlets, such as clinics, which may be staffed by judgmental providers. The initiative trained pharmacy staff and peer educators to provide accurate, up-to-date information on emergency contraception and other reproductive health services.",5,True
b2f45e1,"The work is regarded as voluntary, and working conditions are casual. In the case of South Africa, the pay levels of ECEC workers do not allow them to move out of poverty. Sometimes ECEC workers enrol in training, topping up their incomes with the EPWP stipend. However, when the training ends, they have higher skills but the same remuneration as before. Poor worker remuneration is also common in ECEC programmes in other African countries, like those reviewed in Kenya95 and Nigeria. Improvements in national legislation in South Africa and Uruguay, and the ratification of the ILO’s Domestic Workers Convention (No.",5,False
6fa84b5,"In addition to sexuality education, this effort involves implementing change processes in health services and putting in place guidelines and care protocols for prevention and for the sexual and reproductive health of this population, with an approach that differs from the one used for the adult population. The countries of Latin America have made significant progress in this direction, through different instruments. To this end there is a specific list of medicines that must be provided free to the requestor, with a proper medical prescription.",5,True
c797c1f,"In Article 198, the law defines ‘marital rape’ as any act of sexual intercourse committed by one spouse on the other by violence, threat or trickery. The penalty for ‘marital rape’ is found in Article 199, where is provided that such a person shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of at least two (2) months but less than six (6) months and a fine of one hundred thousand (100,000) to three hundred thousand (300,000) Rwandan francs or one of these penalties. If ‘marital rape’ results in an ordinary disease, the offender shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of six (6) months to two (2) years.",5,True
48a88cc,"An efficient use of ICT can disseminate government information to a broader audience in a fast and convenient manner. At the initial stage of national e-Government development, an ideal point of entry for developing countries would be setting up a website for the national gender machinery. The website, as an official gateway to gender-related policies and programmes, would provide a ready access to online information ranging from the organizational structure of the national gender machinery to government statistics, publications, government services and programmes aimed for women’s empowerment. Through the use of technology, the interaction between the governments and women can be stimulated and become more effective. Basic forms of interactivity available through emails, downloadable forms, discussion forums and online polls not only provide an improved delivery of basic services, but also build up a basis for online participation.",5,True
a914401,"In 2008, an estimated 44 million induced abortions occurred in the world (6 million in developed countries and 38 million in developing countries), almost half of which were carried out using unsafe procedures (Guttmacher Institute, 2012). Globally, it is estimated that 47,000 women die each year from complications associated with unsafe abortion. Many of these deaths could be prevented through better access to sexuality education, contraceptive information and supplies, and safe abortion services where allowed by law (Shah and Ahman, 2010).",5,True
8124654,"Again, the private sector would provide the bulk of credit, but it would be characterized by low interest rates leveraged with government loan guarantees. The real targeting approach might also be complemented by other policies, such as capital management techniques to deal with possible capital flight (discussed in more detail below). These loan guarantees substitute for collateral, leveraging access to credit and potentially bringing informal sector businesses into the formal sector.",5,False
22c1266,"However, the larger agenda of recognition of the care needs of migrants and valuation of social reproduction as a central axis of the analysis of migration would require the tough political challenge of transformative, universalized access to childcare services in both Australia and Lebanon that is delinked from parents' income levels,from productivist assumptions (as in Australia) and from parents' migrant status (as in Lebanon). Power, production and social reproduction: Human in/security in the global political economy. In Transnational Families, Migration and the Circulation of Care: Understanding Mobility and Absence in Family Life, edited by Loretta Baldassar and Laura Merla.",5,False
aafadec,"Equality under the law, equality of opportunity' and equality of (political) voice have not yet been fully achieved in many MENA countries. Despite a number of steps taken, women in the MENA region continue to have a rather low level of legal protection against gender-based discrimination. The domestic laws in MENA countries are not always consistent with the gender equality principles set by international law, including the CEDAW.",5,True
7f027ae,"The maturity stages of e-Government for Gender Equality, which is an adaptation of the EGDI’s four-stage model, suggest key characteristics of the e-Government evolution regarding the usefulness of contents and services, technical sophistication and ease of use, degree of integration, etc. The framework was used for the analysis of national gender machinery websites from 11 countries presented in Chapter 3 of this report. They have links to ministries, departments and other branches of government.",5,True
cb82bc2,"Key elements to achieve this are: empowering client communities to become active parties in decision-making instead of considering them mere subjects of consultations, incorporating information feedback loops to avoid knowledge being reserved for a selected few, and ensuring accountability at a personal, individual level so that policies, strategic plans, budgets, performance management systems and individual accountability and responsibility are all aligned. Finally, students and their families, users, affected groups, communities and taxpayers must play an integral part in defining the parameters and systems of monitoring and evaluation. In South Africa, although there seems to be higher educational achievement, many observers question the quality of education received in state schools, asking whether the pass rate actually reflects students’ learning achievements. A recent court judgment finding the Government in contempt of court for ignoring earlier court orders to provide textbooks for schoolchildren appears to support this argument (Nkosi, 2012).",5,False
4a913e0,"The part of the brain primarily responsible for the detection of, and reaction to, a threat is called the amygdala. Threat detection and survival is given priority over all other brain functions. The human system will respond to the perceived threat in one or more of five predictable ways: friend, fight, fright, freeze and/or flop.",5,False
1dbc28d,"Another 25 per cent said that they would like to stay in the Russian Federation and live there permanently, while 21 per cent said that they would like to live in the Russian Federation for several years and then return home permanently (Tyuryukanova, 2011, p. 155). Among them, females from Uzbekistan more often wanted to ""come and go"" (66 per cent) and were the least willing to apply for Russian citizenship (70 per cent of them did not have such plans) (Tyuryukanova, 2011, pp. Contrary to these findings, another survey of Central Asian female migrants in the Russian Federation showed that 70 per cent of them had firm plans to return home (Agadjanian and others, 2014).",5,False
a021efd,"It provides the financing and capital necessary for their development, it supports the entrepreneur when strategic decisions have to be made, and it facilitates the improvement of the company’s potential for generating value for its customers, shareholders and all officers and employees. The objective of this stage, which is financially very risky, is to finalise the development of a technological prototype that makes it possible to meet the technological challenge, and begin to assess the existence of a potential market. The signing of a first client constitutes the transition to the venture capital stage. The few successful projects should more than offset the capital losses of those who fail.",5,False
e462362,"The section then presents current practices to promote access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights for persons with disabilities, before concluding with recommendations for the way forward. Target 5.6, which is placed under the goal calling for gender equality and empowerment of all women and girls, calls for ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences. The CPRD is the first Convention to explicitly recognize the need for sexual and reproductive health for persons with disabilities. Article 25 underscores the need to provide persons with disabilities with the same range, quality and standard of free or affordable sexual and reproductive health care and programmes as provided to other persons.",5,True
72714a0,"According to official figures, there were 7,133 humanitarian entrants from Ethiopia in 1991-2015 (Government of Australia undated). Several thousand more Ethiopians have been sponsored under categories of spouse or family reunification visas, and the 2011 census records 8,452 Ethiopian-born people in the population. Like other humanitarian entrants who have been granted Permanent Protection Visas, Ethiopian refugees receive resettlement assistance through the Humanitarian Settlement Strategy (HSS), which was introduced in 2000 to provide a range of specialized services for humanitarian entrants.",5,False
60ca035,"The sheer volume of women adding their voices to the conversation, saying “I hear you, I understand you, I believe you”, has enabled them to find courage. Providing women with a chance to unburden painful experiences, and ultimately find relief, serves as collective therapy that is free and open to all. Women everywhere can say “me too” to someone else, whether that means “it happened to me” or simply “I believe you.”",5,True
2c360e3,"As such, pursuing a shift to demand-led growth, on its own, is unlikely to address the environmental costs associated with sustained growth, unless the higher wages and earnings of lower income groups that will result from such a shift are spent on goods that are less reliant on fossil fuels and natural resource extraction, and increased public expenditure and investment is also allocated to fuel-efficient sectors and technologies. This is where proposals for green economy become relevant. There are, however, different variants of green economy.",5,False
9efb933,"Providing and Paying for Long Term Care, Paris, 2011, Starting Strong II. Early Childhood Education and Care, 2006: International Labour Organization (ILO), Un buen comienzo: la educadbnyioseducadores delaprimera infancla, Geneva, 2012: Ran American Health Organization (PAHO), ""Ensenanza de la enfermeriaen saiud del adulto mayor"", Human Resource for Health Series No. Few countries integrate this kind of nursing as a specific course in the undergraduate nursing curriculum. A diagnostic performed by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) for the region (PAHO, 2012) found that the main difficulties in strengthening nurse training in this area had to do with the lack of suitable clinical fields, the shortage of teachers trained to teach nursing of older persons, and the shortage of candidates interested in the area.",5,False
d996e32,"Target 3.7 calls for universal access to sexual and reproductive health care services (including family planning), information and education, which would help to prevent adolescent childbearing and unintended pregnancies. Globally, childbearing among adolescents declined by 21 per cent between 2000 and 2015. Central and Southern Asia made the greatest progress: the region reduced the adolescent birth rate by more than 50 per cent, largely due to advances in Southern Asia.",5,True
a062af0,"Even software engineers argue that programming errors are more likely to occur (and take longer to fix) after long hours, despite the tech industry’s glorification of seemingly endless workdays (Robinson, 2005). Working-hour legislation and the legal right to request flexible working arrangements have historically helped protect workers. However, real change needs to occur in organisational culture and practice.",5,False
3eef7e6,"Recent studies of high growth start-ups in the United States find that only 10-15% of them are founded by women (Brush etal., Looking more specifically at start-up funding, several studies have shown that women are extremely under-represented among venture-backed entrepreneurs in the United States. Gompers and Wang (2017[i2]) find that just 10.7% of US venture-backed founders were women from 2010-2015. 2014(H)) estimate the number to be 15% using data from 2011-2013.",5,True
f9ed0fb,"The employer’s role is largely associated with the obligation to act as a model employer. There is an expectation that the public sector, by the excellence of its modern employment policies and practices, will act as a leading force and as an example for the rest of the country’s employers. Therefore, it is crucial that the public sector embeds and exemplifies gender equality in its own employment policies.",5,True
928430d,"If all those reforms happened in a particularly rigid state - as it is likely to be the case, it is highly probable that employment will still suffer from this former rigidity. It will then introduce a negative bias in the evaluation. A positive value means a pro-worker state’s legislation (often tied to institutional rigidity) and a negative value means pro-employer legislation (more liberal). Conversely to labor reform’s index we do not have this index for every state.",5,False
53d2e8c,"The law entered into force the last quarter of 2014, though some provisions will be phased in over the 2015-2018 period. The overall goal tax reform is to raise the tax-to-GDP ratio to finance a large increase in education spending. The tax measures aim to raise an extra 3% of GDP. More than half of the increased revenues are forecasted to come from increased income taxation, mainly from corporate income (Table 1). Increases in compliance are forecast to increase revenues by 0.5% of GDP (17% of the overall reform revenue goal), while expansions in the VAT base will account for 0.3% of GDP (12% of the overall reform target. To raise more revenues Chile could focus on broadening the tax base of the personal income tax (PIT), which does not contribute significantly to reduce inequality.",5,False
91504a1,"The most significant gaps were in: technology and technology transfer, access to finance, promotion of entrepreneurial education, cheaper, faster start-up and better regulations, and access to support services. These gaps reflected weaknesses in national legal frameworks and SME agencies, as well as in the elaboration and implementation of specific policy measures. Drawing on the World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness Index, this framework focuses on key entrepreneurial conditions (Box 2).'9 GEM is the basis for an annual national Adult Population Survey, along with National Expert Surveys.",5,False
ccfa3db,"A widow will receive one-eighth of her deceased husband’s assets or one-fourth if he has no children. For example, it is not uncommon for the family to pressure female heirs into relinquishing their full inheritance rights in favour of male relatives. Many women do not know that they can refuse to cede their rights or can appeal to the courts.",5,True
5ffb1c7,"They reported that cash transfers had the greatest impact on marriage-related indicators, noting that the transfers worked as an incentive to stay in school and increase financial independence, both of which could have reduced adolescent marriage. Enrolment rates were higher for children participating in the programme, and there was a slight increase in the number of years of schooling they received. The mixed results suggest that the design of transfer programmes may be important for achieving outcomes. Cash payments made directly to girls rather than their parents had the greatest impact on reducing adolescent pregnancy and HIV in Malawi’s Zomba programme (Baird et al.,",5,True
4c15484,"Gender Equality Observatory of Latin America and the Caribbean: Annual Report 2012-A Look at Grants, Support and Burden for Women. Santiago, Chile: ECLAC. Accessed 14 September 2017, https://www.cepa!. The Impact of Conditional Cash Transfer Programs on the Time Allocation of Beneficiaries: The Case of ’Oportunidades’ Program in Mexico.""",5,True
23d7a93,"One of the targets of Goal 8 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is the reduction in the number of young people in this situation, which means there is a need for information that explains the barriers to their integration into the labour market and the education system. The time-use data for this age group show that, on average, women who are out of school and the labour market spend at least 40 hours per week on unpaid domestic work, which confirms that they are not in school and not being paid for their work (ECLAC, 2016a). For example, in Costa Rica and Mexico, young people spend more than 70 hours per week on domestic and care work (see figure IV.6).",5,True
437269e,"In terms of context, these CoSOs may precede the eruption of conflict, may deal with issues not relating to the conflict (in Israel and Turkey for example) or may be established as a result of the conflict (in Bosnia, Cyprus and Turkey). In terms of identity, the vast majority of these CoSOs are civic, post-national or multicultural. In terms of FOA the organizations work on issues directly relating to the conflict, but also on political issues that do not relate strictu sensu to the conflict.",5,False
15f74f6,"Following a typical banking model may not be sufficient to cater to the financial and non-financial needs of unbanked women. Savings and credit products need to be fine-tuned to cater to the various lifecycle needs of women, such as children’s education, a daughter’s marriage or long-term saving for old age and medical emergencies. While savings and credit products remain the most important pillars for a women-owned/ managed SACO, other services such as financial literacy awareness programmes, insurance services or pension products can also be delivered through the same co-operative banking channel, if regulatory institutions permit such product offering. Although the grass-roots women owners and senior managers of the SACO need to be mentored and trained in the initial years, it is necessary to let them lead and choose the path for the organisation once they have matured in their leadership roles. As their sense of ownership increases, the women become more involved in running these enterprises. Grass-roots women are more aware of the key challenges that plague poor women clients.",5,True
7099723,"Djibouti Law of 27 December 2007. With the arrival of many citizens from African countries and from transit countries, Egypt is becoming a transit zone for women, or crossing South-East Asia, the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. What is more, since 2003 the Suez Canal has been considered a very important factor in the trafficking of human beings and of counterfeit goods. Amongst these missions, the committee must draw up plans for the implementation, supervised implementation and revision of legislation in order to prevent human trafficking, and also to draw up proposals or recommendations, and to publish a national directory including instructions and pertinent educational material, and the adoption of measures that aim to protect victims of human trafficking. The committee will also lead an awareness-raising campaign for the benefit of employers who bring in foreign workers, on issues relating to human trafficking, and will also examine reports of national and international organisations on the banning of human trafficking, and co-operate with all official and non-official programmes that provide social support for victims affected physically or psychologically or people affected by human trafficking crimes.",5,True
381eae8,"At the regional level, the right to equality and non-discrimination is also guaranteed by, for example, the African Charter on Human and People's Rights (arts. This means that States must take all necessary legislative, administrative and other measures to ensure that no family may be subject to discrimination on any ground. Any right, benefit, privilege or obligation to one ‘family’ (e.g., in social or welfare benefits, inheritance, social security and pensions) must be accorded to all of them.",5,False
fc03f8f,"Successful programmes, she says, provide timely, sufficient and scientific information, tailored to the needs of each age group. “ Evaluation studies have shown that sex education has an impact in delaying the age at the first sexual intercourse, in increasing the use of contraception methods and condoms, and in decreasing the levels of violence against young girls,” she says. “ The above implies the reduction of early and unwanted pregnancies, and the decrease of HIV/AIDS.” It looks at the decisions that individuals make—or would like to make, if they had the opportunity.",5,True
c2dfcba,"Providing both parents with flexible work schedules and the possibility of short-term part-time work can also ease tensions between caregiving and work as children age (Chapter 4). Designed to be used around childbirth and when children are very young, employment-protected leave provides job security while allowing mothers to recuperate from childbirth and gives both parents time to care for young children. Paid leave gives families valuable income support at a time of increased stress on household budgets.",5,True
83bb461,"Organized in the Red de Genera y Familia, the first step was convening Care Dialogues, an advocacy strategy which aimed to raise the visibility of care on the public agenda.154 But in contrast to the above-mentioned cases, it was die engagement with the ruling party, Frente Amplio, and the inclusion of the SNIC as part of the electoral campaign programme for 2010-2015 that proved crucial.155 Care thus became a political, and not only a technical, public policy issue. Because the importance of unpaid care and domestic work had already been recognized, the discussion could centre on concrete policy design and implementation. These data have yielded, for example, measurements of “time poverty”168 and its relation with income poverty.",5,True
9d1a02f,"Leaders and managers in organisations, who likely made time sacrifices to reach their current rank, often have difficulty accepting that work can be done in fewer hours. In some workplaces, “non-compliers” - those employees who opt to take flexible work hours and family leave - may actually be punished via denied promotions, reduced visibility to superiors, or exclusion from important projects. In-office “face time” remains an important metric of evaluating employees, even if it does not correspond with output (Elsbach and Cable, 2012).",5,False
07908ed,"They entail wide-ranging coordination between different authorities, i.e., they are not the exclusive responsibility of labour ministries (ECLAC, 2005). Labour regulation policies, on the other hand, are those that act upon the relationship between workers and employers through provisions designed to secure rights: non-discrimination, minimum wages and social security, among others. Labour market policies, for their part, have the object of combating unemployment, mitigating its effects and supporting the population at risk of joblessness. These policies can be divided into passive ones designed to offset the loss of pay, such as subsidies, and active ones, which are meant to preserve existing jobs and support the creation of new ones, help the unemployed find work, facilitate the connection between labour supply and demand and improve the skills of the unemployed and those working in microenterprises and small businesses (Samaniego, 2002).",5,False
10d9d50,"There is a lot that companies can do to prevent long hours. The overarching goal is to adjust workplace culture so that managers prioritise tasks, time management, and efficient output rather than time in the office. Leaders must recognise that working long hours is not necessary for high-quality work and may even prevent it.",5,False
461e984,"The survey was carried out in 2011 by Gallup Inc. as part of its Gallup World Poll, and covered over 150 000 people. The target population was the entire civilian population aged 15 and older. Interviews were conducted face-to-face in economies where telephone coverage represented less than 80% of the population and by telephone in countries with higher coverage.",5,False
41c1d90,"The committee facilitates the integration of women’s needs in the government’s work plan as well as monitors and evaluates the mainstreaming of women’s needs in national policies. Furthermore, it also supports the creation of gender-sensitive budgets. The committee conducts studies and reviews the impact of policies on women and men. It is composed of parliamentarians from all political parties and includes a chair, two vice-chairs and eight members who study, evaluate and report on matters and bills relating to the status of women.",5,True
4858741,"Typically, species diversity is low, and a portion of the ecosystems are isolated ecological islands, ecosystems that are not in a direct connection to other similar environments. This causes these ecosystems to be highly vulnerable to disturbance, often unique, and plausibly non-restorable. Additionally, summers are short and characterized by relatively low average temperatures.",6,False
dc81b1d,"It is common to find projects focused on rural or peri-urban areas to try to close access gaps with urban areas. Affordability concerns are already being integrated in project preparation in many water sector projects. However, the equitable access dimension related to vulnerable and marginalized groups is rarely considered (with maybe the exception of schools and healthcare centers).",6,True
a943f1a,"One of the contributing factors to poverty for working-age women in some countries is the increasing proportion of non-partnered women with children (UNDESA, 2015). The international poverty line for extreme poverty is US$1.90 a day 2011 PPP and the ‘median’ poverty line is US$3.10 a day 2011 PPP. Over 25% of children living in rural areas live in extreme poverty, compared to just over 9% of children in urban areas (UNICEF/World Bank, 2016). Poverty is by no means limited to developing countries.",6,False
7f18f4c,"Partial information is available on infrastructure needs and on the costs of water resources management. In the OECD and Big 5 economies annual expenditures in the range of USD 770 billion are projected up to 2015 and over USD 1 trillion by 2025 (see OECD, 2006)!. Not least in OECD countries, environmental pressures will continue to grow, as will the expectations of the general public with respect to environmental protection and natural resource management. These factors are expected to add significantly to the costs incurred in the supply of water services and wastewater treatment.",6,True
ab75e97,"In many OECD and non-OECD countries, local governments can also play an important role in this regard. In decentralised governance systems, local authorities may be authorised to raise taxes and/or incur debt, usually within prescribed limits (OECD, 2009b). Mature capital and financial markets may provide creditworthy municipalities with capital for investment in water and sanitation infrastructure. Fiscal transfers from central budgets are also a source of investment capital in some countries.",6,True
ca1f10a,"Out of 223 river water bodies on the Tisza River and its tributaries, 75 were designated as heavily modified (75 with final status, 4 with provisional status and 2 have unknown status) representing 34% of the total river water bodies. In the Ukrainian part, a large part of the landfills for solid municipal waste have exceeded their design capacity. Flood events, including the floods in August 2002, highlighted the problem of inundation of landfills, dump sites and storage facilities where harmful substances are deposited.",6,True
e5c961e,"In Mexico, Scott and Shah (2004) advocate to downsize pump capacity while increasing irrigation efficiency, and to shift to lower-water-demand crops to address long-term groundwater overdraft. Regions with increasingly scarce water resources are encouraged to move from ""more crop (and jobs) per drop"" to ""more cash and nature per drop"" (Lopez-Gunn et al., They may be worth considering especially in situations of increasingly visible scarcity or externalities so long as they are built on sufficient information about the hydrogeology and that they support a larger regulatory framework.",6,True
f033437,"Hydropower production is common in the upper part of the basin, and cascades of dams form big reservoirs. Many small dams are used for irrigation purposes and fish-breeding. In Turkey, seven dams and one regulator are under operation on the Ergenc River and its tributaries, serving irrigation, flood control and some drinking water supply purposes (15% of drinking water of Edime and Kirldareli cities is supplied from two reservoirs, Suloglu and Armagan). There are also 53 small dams located on several tributaries used for irrigation.",6,True
ec45988,"It addresses ongoing and future water risks and identifies what complementary role governments may play in that setting. Water risks that farmers face exogenously—which will be denoted as exogenous risks—including those related to climate change and competing water demand on which an individual farmer (and food company) has limited effect. In contrast, endogenous water risks are risks to which an individual fanner (or company) contributes, e.g. nutrient runoffs leading to water pollution or intensive groundwater use leading to aquifer depletion.",6,True
336e5f8,"Luxembourg has been slow to implement certain laws (the Sustainable Development Plan, sectoral master plans) and European directives. For example, there are gaps in Luxembourg’s implementation of the Seveso Directive, which calls for external emergency plans that entail active obligations to notify local residents. Over the period 1990-2007, its economy grew strongly, with GDP rising by 118% for an average of 4.7% per year.",6,False
ccef8db,"The subsequent modifications to TERM-H20 aimed to improve on this performance by separating irrigated and dry land activities and allowing for greater factor mobility between them (Glyn Wittwer 2012). With demand rising for both resources and increasing challenges from climate change, water scarcity can threaten the long-term viability of energy projects and hinder development”. At least two-thirds indicate that water is a substantive risk to business operations.”",6,True
e13d441,"Another obstacle to proper implementation of the WFD is the conflict between national authorities and the regions, as well as regulatory uncertainty due to the perception of continuous changes in the institutional framework. Indeed, when the river basin authorities became river district authorities, the central government acquired more power regarding river basin management while the distribution of power among the state and the regions had previously been more clearly defined. The district authority is now considered a source of conflict between the state and regions, instead of being a planning and co-ordinating authority.",6,True
11fd7f2,"Clearing land for pasture and feed crops has led to widespread deforestation and biodiversity loss and overgrazing leads to erosion and compaction. Furthermore, livestock production accounts for large amounts of water use and constitutes a source of water pollution from hormone use and other chemicals, as well as from the inadequate handling of manure. A limited number of genetically modified animals, animal substances, tissues and micro-organisms have been introduced in the production of livestock and fish to date.",6,True
4b99d6d,"Traditionally used by governments or public entities, PCG are also being more recently used by sub-sovereign governments, municipalities and private companies to borrow domestically from commercial banks or issue in the domestic capital market in local currency. A Partial Credit Guarantee can lift the borrower’s credit rating above a critical threshold, at which access to the market is possible. The guaranteed coverage level is set to achieve a target bond rating to facilitate bond issuance, or at a level required to encourage commercial bank lenders to participate.",6,False
3a6f0d5,"The water quality impacts may be caused by the use of agrochemicals in intensive bioenergy feedstock production systems, such as the use of fertilisers which pose a risk for eutrophication. In addition, the feedstock processing plants to convert raw materials to bioenergy can also have impacts on water quality, although this will vary depending on a range of factors, including for example, biorefinery technology, effluent controls and water recycling practices (FAO, 2008, Fingerman et al., As a result sediment and nutrient pollution from agricultural land is likely to increase, particularly where maize is cultivated on marginal agricultural land which contributes to the highest nutrient loads.",6,True
21c1f14,"Currently, for example, many of the costs associated with the ecological and morphological degradation of the Lagoon are “externalised”, in other words, these costs are not borne by those who contribute to the damage, like speed boats or industrial polluters. The costs of insurance against increased flood risk are another example of the externalisation of costs. In these cases, costs are increased for the tourism sector and shops, offices and facilities exposed to flooding. But other sectors, such as fishing and agriculture, also bear costs, due, for example, to the negative impact of morphological changes and water pollution. To give just one example, the traditional Lagoon fishery (in existence since records began to be kept) was largely abandoned in the 1980s, a period during which fishing in the Lagoon became largely untenable due to environmental factors.",6,True
afb691a,"Nonetheless, heavy traffic is the major cause of repeated exceedances of standards for NOx and tropospheric ozone in the capital city of Luxembourg (Chapter 2). Around 3.5% of the national population under 15 years lives in proximity to a major road, the highest proportion (together with Belgium) in the EU15. These children are at high risk from air pollution, noise and traffic accidents (Dalbokova et al.,",6,False
ca537ed,"More than 70 per cent of the drinking water supply of Azerbaijan depends on the Kura River. The Araz River water entering Azerbaijan is reported14 to have MACS in excess of one hundred times for copper, molybdenum and other heavy metals- it should be noted that in some parts of the basin, natural geochemical background levels for some heavy metals are elevated. As a result, river water microflora and fauna disappear, preventing the self-cleansing process. This situation is caused by mining, leather and fertilizer industries along the rivers, and the lack of wastewater treatment facilities in Georgia and Armenia.",6,True
c7368f0,"The integrated function of these riverine systems ensures the development of self-sustaining aquatic populations, flood protection and reduction of pollution. The DRBMP reports the area of floodplains/ wetlands to be reconnected by 2015 for both the Danube River and its tributaries. The inter-linkage with national River Basin Management Plans (RBMP) is vital for wetland reconnection, as, for example, significant areas are expected to be reconnected to rivers with catchment areas <4,000 km’.",6,True
7ef8eb4,"Such schemes can complement mandatory standards by providing an incentive for property developers to respond to market demands for higher energy and environmental standards. In the same way, industry-based standards can also help encourage further energy-enhancing retrofitting. Governments can also play a facilitating role by filling information gaps through the initiation of building energy audits which can be used as the basis for energy management contracts.",6,False
d9061d0,"Women are slightly more likely to be food insecure than men in every region of the world (Figure 22) (FAO/IFAD/UNICEF/WFP/ WHO, 2017). At the same time, obesity has nearly tripled worldwide since 1975. In 2016, more than 1.9 billion adults (older than 18 years) were overweight and more than one-third of these (over 650 million) were obese (WHO, 2018).",6,False
9667f7e,"In the first instance, the conclusions should be awaited of an EU project currently examining this issue. The initiative for scoping and implementing PES can be left to local communities acting with other key local stakeholders, with potential support from international networks and NGOs. Pollution of rivers and lakes in Eastern parts of Georgia is of concern both to Georgia and to the downstream parts of Western Azerbaijan.",6,True
59973b0,"In Spain, there was significant discrepancies in elasticities of irrigation water, based on water scarcity and crop patterns. Elasticity was higher where water is abundant and lower where water is scarce (because water uses are already efficient). Elasticity is low for high value crops. In developing countries, where irrigation water can be very cheap, even significant price increases (in %) may fail to trigger changes in farming practices.",6,True
1f17ddc,"On the other hand, investments that are not coordinated with neighbouring countries may lead to inefficiency, over-capacities, energy poverty, negative environmental impacts (some through water) and political tension. Such problems are likely to be exacerbated if harmonized environmental standards are lacking. Global Tracking Framework: UNECE Progress in Sustainable Energy (United Nations, Geneva, 2017). Renewable Energy in the Water, Energy and Food Nexus (IRENA, Abu Dhabi, 2015).",6,False
fbb7294,"About one third of OECD countries have achieved absolute decoupling. Groundwater withdrawal has increased in many parts of the world, at an alarming scale in India (Shah et al., Groundwater is a key source of water supply for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes in many parts of the world. More than 60% is consumed by agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions, producing 40% of the world’s food (Morris et al.,",6,True
64cdd00,"There is a 56% shortage of environmental impact management officers at the provincial level (DEA, 2010). Many municipalities have no staff positions dedicated to environmental management. The number of vacancies is high because of a combination of factors, including high staff turnover and low wages due to the lack of funding. This affects the ability of environmental departments to attract and retain staff.",6,False
b352d3e,"The Protocol focal points may be considered information multipliers as they can reach and motivate important target groups and potential supporters, such as policy makers, donors, media and the general public, to get them involved in the implementation of the Protocol. The objectives of the Protocol align closely with the objectives of the 2030 Agenda, and the Protocol can be considered as a precursor of several SDG principles such as universality, intersectorality, equity, prevention and safety. Org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2000/wat/nip.wat.2000.l .e.pdf.",6,False
9de0e62,"Major agriculture exporters, such as Australia, Brazil, Chile, or European nations, gain in global market shares. In contrast, beef and dairy markets remain largely unaffected. The absolute size of trade change depends on the initial volume of trade flows, net trade changes can result in shift in the direction of trade flows, which should be accounted for when interpreting these results. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island.",6,False
18662aa,"In order to ensure a proper co-operation between the different levels of government in the management of water resources, the constitution of the Committees of Competent Authorities should be accelerated. This enhanced participation should take place through the appropriate institutions, including in the river basin authorities. The law should allow the inclusion of environmental and scarcity costs in water prices.",6,True
3127eb4,"The OECD guidelines for good practice set forth a number of options that could be considered to support efforts to move toward the sustainable management of water quality in agriculture. The greater use of economic instruments (e.g. water quality trading, pollution taxes) to address non-point source pollution can improve the cost effectiveness10 of measures. While water quality trading has the potential to lower the cost of achieving improved water quality, in practice, experience with such programmes remains fairly limited to date.11 Design features (e.g. scale, compliance requirements, transaction costs) have an important bearing on their overall performance in reaching environmental and efficiency objectives. Current efforts to advance sustainable agricultural practices (including, for example, “precision agriculture”) could be considerably scaled-up and provide opportunities for green growth.",6,True
5d27264,"For example, an engagement approach might not fully address the wide range of key actors and stakeholders, the different levels at which the conflict operates, the power imbalances between parties, or local community needs, goals and cultural practices. Many processes also fail to respect the principle of free, prior, and informed consent (FP1Q, which often leads to immediate grievances within affected communities. When key stakeholders are poorly engaged, marginalized, or excluded from decision making or related engagement processes, opposition is more likely and tensions can escalate rapidly.",6,False
9f9b56f,"While the increase is modest as a percentage change, it is considerable in coverage when viewed as a net number. This reflects the high population growth rates in Arab countries and the importance of pursuing water-related investments for increased service provision for the un-served as well as keeping pace with population growth trends. Figure 8 compares access to drinking water from the “piped on premises” source (or house connection), other improved sources and unimproved sources for the years 1990 and 2011. Despite the lack of complete data sets for all Arab countries, available national averages were used in calculating the regional average in order to compare and report on the progress of access to drinking water sources and sanitation facilities in the Arab region during the period 1990-2011. It is therefore important to highlight that the presented number of population with access to improved water sources and sanitation facilities at the regional level are approximate.",6,True
8e2a946,"It increased in 2007, as a result of the legal obligation imposed on oil companies to incorporate biofuels into petrol and diesel sold in Luxembourg. Currently, renewable sources account for 9.5% of total electricity production. However, Luxembourg covers more than half of its electricity needs through imports. The indicative target for electricity produced from renewable energy sources as a share of gross electricity consumption is 5.7% for 2010.",6,False
5ced7e5,"An inclusive culture that engages women in the design, operation, and maintenance of water and sanitation systems leads to better responsiveness and customer satisfaction. As satisfaction increases, so does willingness to pay for services and maintenance of water systems, which is key to sustainability. Its targets 6.1 and 6.2 are measurable by access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation services, coupled with hygiene promotion and an end to open defecation. Special attention is paid to gender and social inclusion, which brings sustainability into focus. Other targets respond to the environmental considerations and needs, along with a focus on international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water and sanitation-related activities and programmes.",6,True
e547afb,"Despite the number of payments to consider, it is not clear whether, or how, the government can afford to meet its financial obligations. The government - through the Ministry of Finance - guarantees the WAJ’s and MWI’s loans and is obliged to fund their deficits. The government records these amounts as debt in the general budget. The Ministry of Finance has also provided sovereign guarantees for some projects with the private sector.",6,False
c243ffd,"A “problemshed” approach is very wise under many circumstances, but specific incentives also need to be set at the federal level for outcome-oriented governance at basin and state level. This is very much the spirit of the National Pact for Water Management signed in 2011 between the ANA and state governments to converge towards integrated water resources management (see Chapter 3). In many instances water policy reforms are difficult to put into practice because little data and information are available, particularly on the economic, financial and institutional implications.",6,True
36cdeca,"Equally, the Nile River headwaters originate outside the ESCWA region and serves as the primary source of freshwater for Egypt and the Sudan, the latter of which under-consumes its water allocation, thereby allowing additional supplies to flow to Egypt. While Lebanon shares several river basins with its neighbours, relatively high precipitation rates, short river courses and snowmelt generally provide the country with sufficient water supplies. Climate change is expected to have adverse impacts on these shared water resources. These include wastewater treatment and reuse, agricultural runoff reuse and desalination.",6,True
ac6f0a7,"There is no mechanism regarding decontamination of orphan sites, however, and no financial means exists for the government to take such action. Environmental authorities have made an inventory of publicly owned sites contaminated by pesticides, but no remediation has yet taken place due to a lack of funding (Chapter 5). Law 491 of 1999 requires projects requiring licences (i.e. the largest ones, with the highest environmental risks) to take out insurance covering environmental damage.",6,False
e6de9e2,"Of 30 contracts signed, 25 corresponded to a purely contractual PPP (concession) and 5 to institutionalised PPPs (mixed companies). The trend before 2004 should be treated with caution, as waste classification in Portugal was subject to change following the requirements of the EC Regulation on waste statistics (2150/2002/ EC). They integrate seven waste management units: classification (including laboratory), sorting and transfer, stabilisation, organic waste treatment, recovery of contaminated packaging, soil decontamination, physico-chemical treatment, and hazardous waste landfill.",6,False
2a5a903,"Following the creation of modern nation states in Western Asia starting in the first half of the 20th century, most of the region's major rivers and many aquifer systems were found to cross political borders. However, their management did not emerge as a major problem until increasing freshwater scarcity exposed dependencies on internationally shared water resources. Large-scale irrigation projects boosted investments in and socio-economic dependencies on the water and agricultural sectors.",6,True
8c26676,"They have been variously combined in different frameworks, thus emphasising certain universal aspects of governance (Lockwood et al., It specifically addresses the issue of coherence and co-ordination of public action to achieve water policy outcomes, such as sustainability, efficiency, equity, rule of law, accountability and participation. It can therefore only provide a partial response to the ongoing water governance debates.",6,True
1ea7d51,"This body is currently drafting guidelines for achieving good environmental status for the coastal waters of the Black Sea, in line with the EU WFD. The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution and ICPDR are both members of the DABLAS Task Force29, set up in 2001 as a platform for cooperation between international financing institutions, donors and countries of the region to ensure the protection of water and water-related ecosystems in the Danube and the Black Sea. One is that of the ICPR and the OSPAR Commission, which promotes international cooperation under the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (1992).",6,True
2f57da9,"In some cases, even new laws lack key elements such as definitions, precision of rights and obligations and setting of standards, and also fall short in terms of determining procedural stages. Many are framework laws and require the adoption of secondary legislation and a set of regulations, steps have been taken, but there is still a long way to go. Overlapping competences and fragmentation of responsibilities among different institutions and management agencies often occurs and so does a lack of effective coordination among the different ministries/authorities. Insufficient human, financial and technical resources are an additional barrier.",6,False
f9ceaaa,"Past resettlement projects often turned out to be ineffective: the resettled households were not satisfied with their living conditions in the new location (due to insufficient financial support for construction of houses there, inappropriate quality of soil in the allocated land for agriculture, lack of employment opportunities, etc.) At the same time, there remains the problem of previous spontaneous individual housing. The Master Plan of Dushanbe (approved in 1983 and adjusted in 2010) provides for demolition of tire ""kibit"" buildings made of traditional cob material in the central part of the city, which have total floor space estimated at about 750,000 nr, with an eye to using tire land for construction of multi-storey residential buildings.",6,False
9e572b2,"The Public Debt Committee consists of the Central Bank, the Ministry of Planning and the Ministry of Finance. It is positive that there are high-level decision-making bodies in Jordan that can give mandate to PPP projects. However, it appears that they may have difficulty in performing their tasks effectively.",6,False
ed494d6,"On the one hand, if water bottlenecks are well managed and the change of resource availability is well anticipated, all the options available to limit the effect of water scarcity will be implemented in a cost effective way. In that case, the cost of adjusting to the bottleneck is quite low for the electricity system. On the other hand, if disruptions in the electric sector cannot be avoided, they can be very costly. Therefore one needs to take into account the cost of investments to hedge energy systems against the risk of disruption, for instance by providing more back-up generation capacity.",6,True
9693a66,"However, there are also many places where serious household affordability issues prevent further increases, unless social protection measures are being introduced (OECD, 2009a). This is especially true where household affordability is an important constraint. In order to be efficient and effective, however, subsidies should be predictable, transparent, targeted and ideally taper off over time.",6,False
9d10887,"The process was first carried out in 2004, and led to additional funding allocated to HIV/AIDS projects, “which topped the economists’ “to do” list”. Similarly, biosand filters was the intervention with the lowest risk of a BCR below 1. In the final overall ranking, WSS interventions came in about 15th to 20th position (over a total of 30 interventions), whereas health interventions to address malnutrition (such as micronutrient supplements or community-based nutrition promotion) came towards the top, largely due to their comparatively low costs and fast payback periods. It does so by comparing the effectiveness of various health interventions based on the estimated cost per DALY averted (see Box 5.4).",6,False
460f3ae,"Despite the limited amount of data made available thus far, a significant number of predictions stress the vulnerability of water resources in Central Asia. An increase in air temperature and a short-term increase in river flows, due to the melting of glaciers, is one such likely consequence. In the long term, river flows are predicted to decrease, and the levels of aridity and evapotranspiration to rise, which would increase irrigation requirements for water and increase the risk of scarcity and droughts. The willingness of all the riparian countries to cooperate, establish an open dialogue and compromise to find a consensus between their positions is necessary for agreement.",6,True
daf24b8,"The partnership aims to promote public awareness and involvement in projects to conserve and protect freshwater ecosystems relating to the Danube River basin. In 1974, the member countries of the Intergovernmental Coordinating Committee of La Plata Basin Countries created the Financial Fund for the Development of the River Plate Basin (FONPLATA). The mission of IFAS is to fund joint environmental and research programmes and projects aimed at saving the Aral Sea, improving the environmental situation in the areas affected by the disaster and addressing common social and environmental challenges in the subregion.",6,True
af2bb3e,"An instrument such as the Pact could be used to accompany such a gradual devolution of responsibility. There are basins where charges have been applied at federal level, but not yet at all state levels, as in the case of the Sao Francisco, Doce and Paranaiba River basins.5 This may also create limitations in terms of the financial autonomy of the water agencies, given the fewer resources available (ANA, 2016). Some delegated water agencies have to deal with both federal and state authorities and face difficulties in applying different set of rules, inspections and more or less stringent regulation.",6,True
7b129e2,"As a result, the quality of sorting is uneven and there is considerable unexploited recovery potential, particularly for organic components and plastics from municipal waste. The polluter pays principle is only partially applied, and prices vary among the communes. There has been little progress in managing waste from the health sector, it is no longer co-ordinated, and self-sufficiency is not guaranteed for the treatment and disposal of infectious waste.",6,False
84cf878,"Disputes can therefore appear at local, regional, national, or transboundary levels. The risk of conflict escalation is higher in situations where two or more sets of actors with unequal power face increasing water scarcity without access to alternatives or coping mechanisms. At the same time, however, shared water resources can serve as a platform to build cooperation between parties in conflict. Whether water resources generate conflict or cooperation between competing users often depends on the governance systems in place.",6,True
0bbc8be,"As such, IBCC has been helpful in co-ordinating between various local conservancy districts with state-level agencies and local stakeholders. This is useful in so far as there are so many conservancy districts in Colorado that almost none have jurisdiction over an entire river basin. In order to account for all alternatives, co-operation is therefore necessary.",6,True
1c074a0,"These included Acts on integrated pollution prevention and control (2003), environmental information (2004) and trading of emission allowances for greenhouse gas emissions (2004). At the same time, many existing Acts were amended and complemented by regulations. For example, a new Air Act was adopted in 2010, replacing the 2002 one, to transpose the EU directive on ambient air quality and cleaner air.",6,False
c0bc13f,"Further to the Kenyan Water Act of 2002, the small water project has to sign a Service Provision Agreement (SPA) with the Water Service Board (WSB) in whose jurisdiction it falls (for example, the Athi Water Services Board-AWSB for the area surrounding Nairobi). Upon successful completion of the project, the Global Partnership for Output-based Aid (GPOBA) pays subsidies to the small piped water project (figure below), which reduces the overall size of the loan to the communities, and keeps debt service payments affordable. It also provides better risk management from the lender’s perspective and increases incentives for project completion as the subsidy is transferred upon the delivery of agreed outputs (including the increase in the number of connections and changes in revenues collected).",6,True
3c48a01,"When the provision of services involves the same network there may be “joint” costs, “common” costs, or network benefits. This is despite the fact that there may be some relevant differences in circumstances between particular customers that will not be closely reflected in the resulting charges. When considering issues of practicability, it is important to recognise that the availability of information is likely to evolve over time. This means that Ofwat retains the possibility of changing the way costs are assessed depending upon available information. Failing to do so raises equity issues, as future generations will have to foot the bill, either through decayed infrastructure or increased public debt. Typically, all things being equal, industry or municipalities should have an incentive to develop in regions where water is abundant and competition between water users is minimal, and they should cover the costs of a reliable access to water.",6,True
4951012,"Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., et al. ( Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1132 pp. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp. An Overview of IMAGE 2.4. Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Bilthoven.",6,False
001bca6,"Recommended actions in sphere (2) and then (3) are conditional on the efforts undertaken at the hotspot location and may become secondary if hotspot level risks are well managed. Source: Author’s own work. As for most regions, water risk hotspots require well-functioning generic water policies (OECD, 2016a).",6,True
5c45ef3,"The conclusion of their work is that the benefits of management or groundwater irrigation will not always be significant, and that they depend highly on economic, hydrologic, and agronomic parameters (Koundouri, 2004). There has been significant discussion in the literature on possible criteria to define when groundwater pumping is detrimental (see Chapter 2, and Llamas and Garrido, 2007). In particular, fighting against stock depletion is rarely found to be appropriate (Giordano, 2009, GWP, 2012).",6,True
1c0e6cb,"By 1985, Saudi Arabia had 24 desalination plants, including 17 plants on the western coast along the Red Sea and 7 plants on the east coast along the Arabian Gulf. These plants were producing 1.82 million m3/day and 3,630 MW of electric power. More than 70 per cent of that country’s water needs are provided by desalination, and its plants currently generate more than 4,600 MW of electric power. In 2008, the total amount of desalinated water produced by Saudi Arabia was an estimated 10.6 million m3/day.",6,True
d9f3a4a,"However, it faces a growing number of challenges, including deteriorated main routes and worsening traffic congestion. Service quality has declined as the system has not been able to keep up with demand, which has encouraged greater use of alternatives, including private vehicles. Programme implementation needs careful monitoring and analysis, as such regimes can create incentives to increase the private car fleet. Bogota also closes road segments for selected hours on holidays and weekends, creating an additional 121 km of pedestrian and bike path called Ciclouia.",6,False
75291eb,"That information is used to manage dams and water bodies, minimising risks of floods and droughts. This application enhances K-water’s capacity to deliver its mandate on water quantity management and prevention of scarcity and flood risks. It can serve similar purposes abroad, where other agencies have a similar mandate. Water suppliers in Korea are confronted with the need to renew existing infrastructure, as ageing affects its performance, in particular as regards leakage.",6,True
fe213aa,"Understanding that there is also a ""hydro-social cycle"" draws attention to gender dimensions. At every stage of the hydro-social cycle there are different demands, risks and benefits for women and for men. This responsibility becomes even greater in the face of pervasive water quality problems in both developed and developing countries, which will become worse with climate disruption.",6,True
0ac2784,"The local government can facilitate the exchange of good practices and knowledge acquired through the rural-urban partnership, promoting evaluation of the initiatives and sharing information. They provide useful vehicles for translating national policy design and implementation at the local level, increasing national policy effectiveness. Also, regions and cities are responsible for much of the service delivery and public investment that determines economic growth and people’s well-being.",6,False
a97339b,"National goals for hydroelectricity are set according to water policies and targets, although this still has to be implemented at the basin level. The Environment Agency is now working with the Energy Saving Trust to develop policy in this area to target hot water use as a way of mitigating climate change. Plans for renewable energy take into account the increasing needs generated by desalination plants, irrigation modernisation, water reuse, aquifer management in periods of droughts, etc.",6,True
12b9412,"This chapter therefore focuses on those linkages where maximum benefit can be derived in terms of water for people, for a healthy environment and for the economy. This reflects the integrated, indivisible and interlinked nature of all SDGs. Water and sanitation have a particular role to play in the 2030 Agenda, because of their centrality to each of the three dimensions that cut across all SDGs (society, economy and environment).",6,True
b408583,"At the same time promoting more competition in the refinery sector would help ensure that costs associated with the transition to cleaner fuels are minimised. The leading role played by cities such as Beijing shows how stronger emissions and fuel standards can limit motor vehicle pollution. Nationwide implementation of leading China standards, and over time higher standards still, should be a high priority for the central government.",6,False
0786dc3,"In particular, small farmers and indigenous communities are still under-represented, and greater participation of irrigation districts and units would contribute to the sustainability of catchments and the balance of aquifers. River basin organisations and river basin councils report to different constituencies and there are only limited platforms to share concerns and take consistent and mutually beneficial decisions. Coordination is currently undertaken on an ad hoc basis.",6,True
fd238ba,"The monitoring of priority substances in sediments and biota is lacking. The same applies to an emissions inventory and losses of priority substances and other relevant pollutants. Very frequently, especially when it comes to the development of the RBMP, die ""expert assessment"" approach is used for assessing the status of water bodies, and this ""expert assessment"" is not subsequently confirmed, which can be interpreted as deterioration of the status of the water body.",6,True
96568dd,These lags could be overcome by devoting more resources to meeting international commitments and by giving greater economic and diplomatic priority to the environment. It also examines performance against the targets in the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy. Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) should meet the reduction target set by the EU Directive on National Emission Ceilings (NEC) for 2010. S02 concentrations have been kept well below the authorised limit value for the protection of human health. Limit values for fine respirable particles (PM10) have never been exceeded. A national target has been set to have 25% of home-work commuting covered by public transit by the year 2020.,6,False
d8326c8,"Strategies are in place to improve water supply conditions for the overall population. The complicated complex of governmental authorities includes a number of ministries and institutions which are responsible for the implementation of governmental water programmes. These programmes are mainly funded by the Government. There are two line ministries, MoWE and MoNP, responsible for water resource management and water protection.",6,True
277cf47,"The overall costs of water pollution caused by agriculture across OECD countries both in terms of treatment for consumption and in terms of damage to ecosystems are likely to exceed billions of euros annually (Gruere, 2016(7], OECD, 2017(6]).' At the same time, in many regions agricultural production is subject to water risks mainly due to climate variability, extreme events, depleting groundwater resources, but it also faces resource competition from other sectors (OECD, 2017(2]). Recent reports show that diffuse pollution from agriculture continues to be problematic in spite of policy efforts (Wang, Tyau and Ybanez, 2017(8], Wasley, Fiona and Davies, 2017(9], Melia, 2017[ioj, OECD, 2017(6]). Droughts and floods continue to have lasting and potentially devastating impacts on agriculture in many regions (OECD, 2016(d).",6,True
0f73ec5,"The Darkosh records show a minimal, though statistically significant, negative trend (Figure 6). From Darkosh onwards, if not before, the Orontes can be considered a regulated river. Despite data gaps, the latter shows a quite regular variability, with drier and wetter periods compared to the mean, and no extreme drought or flood periods (Figure 6). Generally, the downstream station Jisr al Shughur (15,130 km2) exhibits a high-flow season from December to May and a low-flow season from June to November.",6,False
2e2b656,"Catchments are much smaller and are aggregated into river basin scale to satisfy the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000). Rivers and wetlands of national and international significance are protected and improved by means of the most cost-effective measures. For non-designated rivers, action must be cost-beneficial.",6,True
6604853,"Although the Almaty Guidelines are not specifically targeted at joint bodies for transboundary water cooperation, they represent a comprehensive and up-to-date guidance on forms and mechanisms for public participation that can be applied by joint bodies. For example, an Ad Hoc Public Participation Expert Group acts in the framework of ICPDR. In the period 1999-2004, the Joint Russian-Estonian Commission on the Protection and Rational Use of Transboundary Waters had a working group on cooperation with NGOs, local authorities and international organizations. However, the Commission reformed its working groups, and the functions of this working group were transferred to the new working group on IWRM.",6,True
ec2586f,"The improvement of housing provision in rural areas is achieved by considerable self-build construction of single-family houses. In cities and towns, housing construction is mainly led by the private sector and aimed at wealthy customers, a decent housing market remains unaffordable for average households because of their low annual incomes. At present, however, there is neither a policy nor a state programme for development of social housing and affordable housing for rent. Budget funding of new construction projects for those recognized as being in need of housing improvements is scarce.",6,False
87c5df5,"More males than females suffer and die from diarrhoea in every region except South-East Asia. Absence or inadequate provision of public toilets for women reflects - and reinforces - women's exclusion from public power and public spaces more generally. Yet many millions of people in the world lack even the most rudimentary means of obtaining safe water, while billions do not have sanitation facilities that are protected from outside contamination (UN 2015, UN 2014, UN-Women 2014, WHO and UNICEF 2014). Water and sanitation access, demand, provision, priority, health, organization and policy are gendered, even if this is manifested in different ways in different places. The gendered dimensions of the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector are increasingly reflected in public policy agendas, but concrete results have been partial and uneven. Water was generally thought of as a physical resource whose provision was determined, for the most part, by the hydrological cycle and physical infrastructure.",6,True
b0be54e,"Well-designed intergovernmental transfers can create incentives for improved financial sustainability and creditworthiness of local jurisdictions, eventually helping to decrease demands on central budgets. As with central authorities, the 3Ts (taxes, tariffs and transfers), including inter-governmental transfers, are the ultimate source of finance, since other forms must be repaid or provide compensation. These may include grants, funding programmes and specific agreements that can be included in contracts.",6,False
c286a62,"This should be done in a manner that does not undermine local structures and processes, but ensures coherence with the national system. Some checks and balances may be required regarding local mechanisms to ensure a degree of due process or to protect against certain types of discrimination. In turn, mechanisms may be needed to ensure locally achieved resolutions are then protected within the broader national system.",6,False
87f6148,"The green economy must not disturb the balance of the pillars of sustainable development. It was quite noticeable that the mistrust of the intent of the green economy, as expressed by some governments in the Rio+20 process, was a factor in the national consideration as there were lingering concerns on interpretation and implementation modalities. In this regard, the community-based organisation (CBO)/NGO responses were highly focused on social development, poverty eradication and livelihood issues. He outlined, ‘We accept that our tools will include a green and a blue economy based on various national approaches.",6,False
ddcff74,"The technical capacity of individual establishments to respond adequately to environmental protection and resource management questions is also an important factor. Annual corporate environmental protection expenditure. To provide a holistic view of a country’s efforts towards sustaining and protecting the environment, policymakers, analysts and civil society require statistics on environmental governance and regulation at the national level. The magnitude of these activities can inform about the extent of institutional development, availability of resources, and the existence and enforcement of regulatory and market instruments whose primary purpose is to protect, regulate and manage the changing environment. Successful national environmental governance requires institutional strength, as well as regulatory capabilities.",6,False
c3f1000,"R&D efforts (the environmental component of the CORE Programme), ecotechnologies (the new 2009 Action Plan), energy savings (2008 National Energy Efficiency Plan) and the promotion of public transport are all part of a new conception of the environment as an economic opportunity. But as Luxembourg looks ahead post-crisis, it is not certain that environmental action will receive greater priority, beyond the country’s European commitments. Health risk factors, and environmental ones in particular, are regularly checked and the results are often published.",6,False
d3e1e06,"It contributes to the Multilateral Carbon Credit Fund of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EUR 10 million), to the Carbon Fund for Europe sponsored by the World Bank and the European Investment Bank (EUR 10 million), to the Asia Pacific Carbon Fund of the Asian Development Bank (USD 15 million), to the Community Development Carbon Fund (USD 10 million) and to the BioCarbon Fund (USD 5 million) of the World Bank (Table 7.2). Source: Draft 2010 budget. It calls for Luxembourg to: improve energy efficiency by 9% between 2001-05 and 2016,8 reduce GHG emissions by 20% below their 2005 levels, achieve an 11 % share of renewable energy in total energy consumption by 2020, and achieve a 10% share of biofuels in total transport by 2020.",6,False
a10b860,"Driver (2002) estimated that 47 per cent of households in Trinidad and Tobago have improper title and 55 per cent of farmers have no proof of land ownership. Faizool (2002) noted that increasing socio-economic pressures have been accompanied by an increase in squatting especially on the upper slopes of the western half of the Northern Range, both on private and state-owned lands. One reason for the malfunctioning of the market is the failure of land-use planning to release land for development in the right place and at the right time, thus creating artificial land shortages that drive land values up and beyond the reach of the poor to purchase land.",6,False
aae0f91,"Not only does this have potentially negative effects on gender pay gaps and levels of social inclusion, but also Sydney is not fully utilising the skills currently available in its workforce. Moreover, this mixed labour market picture suggests that the low levels of unemployment are masking higher levels of inactivity. Youth unemployment is also high, although this is very much a global trend amongst advanced economies.",7,False
46eb750,"If too much water is stored behind the reservoir, sections of the river downstream from the reservoir can dry out if an insufficient amount of water is released at certain times of the year. This can lead to detrimental effects on animal and plant life downstream from the facility. Because of this, the channel may show signs of degradation (loss of sediments) or aggradation (accumulation of sediments), depending on whether floods can move the remaining incoming sediments.",7,False
082a0bc,"Energy efficiency targets are now in place at all levels of government. Nevertheless, in all countries and economic sectors, increased synergies between renewables and energy efficiency measures are possible, and oftentimes strengthening one will, in turn, strengthen the other. In both technical and policy contexts, renewable energy can have a positive effect on energy efficiency—and vice versa. Each of these steps presents opportunities to strengthen the energy efficiency of the overall system.",7,True
58a8608,"Data over the last 30 years suggests that, had we switched off government subsidies to fossil fuels, global emissions would have been more than a third lower than they actually were in 2010. Countries need to make a SWAP. Nordic countries have started this shift away from fossil fuel subsidies and toward government support to heat pumps as in Sweden, electric cars as in Norway and wind power in Denmark.",7,True
a85f84c,"Large areas of about 500 000 km2 between Mumbai and Bhopal and in Gujarat are covered by thick basalt layers. If basalt is shown to be a suitable cap rock, it is estimated that this would allow storage of 300 Gt C02 (Sonde, 2007). Three of the nine sites designated so far for UMPP projects are on the coast not far from these potential storage areas.13 For inland sites relying on domestic coal, additional costs of USD 5/tC02 for transporting the C02 are expected compared to coastal sites (Mott MacDonald, 2008).",7,False
292ac68,"The University of Troms0 has over 9 000 students and some 2 500 employees. Since Troms County has only 1% of its surface area classed as cultivable land, agriculture is a relatively minor part of land use. It is mainly located around the coast and was traditionally combined with fishing to form a key part of rural livelihoods. Troms County is at the northern limits of agricultural production possibilities, but the Gulf Stream enables some seasonal farming around the coasts and fjords, while the Sami people also carry out traditional reindeer herding.",7,False
3c51419,"In the short-term, a favourable future for the post-2015 sustainable development framework and an ambitious climate deal in Paris will not be possible without policy input. In the longer term, development objectives, including climate-related goals, need policy coherence as well as cash. Governments will need to adapt accordingly.",7,False
69520bc,This motivation is still strong with the reality of recession and austerity in many countries making the idea of green employment growth a welcome antidote to the high unemployment rates. Capacity building and skill development within the regional communities are also important benefits of green initiatives.,7,False
85278d7,"By creating an enabling environment for the emergence of income-generating or income-improving activities, electrification projects can directly contribute to poverty eradication policies. Benefits for agricultural production include irrigation (perhaps with the use of water pumps), increased utilization of motors, food processing, refrigeration and also better access to training through information and communication technologies (ICT). Successful electrification programmes linked to agriculture would not only result in more competitive farming and create employment opportunities, but would also improve trading opportunities and local food security, including through the reduction of post-harvest losses.",7,True
01ce0e9,"For developing countries, it is based on the evolution of absolute poverty (i.e. the proportion of population living on less than $1 a day). For developed countries, poverty is measured as relative income poverty (i.e. with the threshold set as a percentage of the median income in each county in each of the years considered). Only a few OECD countries have “official” measures of poverty that rely on “absolute"" standards, typically in the form of the cost of a basket of goods and services required to assure minimum living conditions and indexed for price changes over time.",7,False
29e6bab,"These new partnerships arc working to provide the most cost-effective electrification solutions, especially in remote communities that arc often the most disadvantaged in terms of electricity access. Though progress in electrification continued at the regional level, it slowed in the recent period, attributable to population growth in rural areas and the ongoing difficulty of extending services to remote areas. The rate of progress has declined in countries with the largest deficits, namely India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, while the lowest access rates arc found among a number of Pacific Island and least developed State.4 Though urban areas in most economics have achieved universal access, rural areas lag behind, and, in a few cases with growing rural populations, rural electrification rates are falling.",7,True
a5663f0,"In the scenario with an 80% renewable share, electricity prices are considerably lower compared to the other scenarios and the number of hours with electricity prices equal to or below zero rises to an astonishing 2 850 hours. A reduced occurrence of electricity prices higher than variable costs in combination with reduced utilisation hours means lower infra-marginal rents for recovering capital costs. Consequently, it is highly questionable whether conventional power plants can be profitably operated with high shares of renewables in energy-only markets with price formation being based on marginal costs.",7,True
59a9b11,"In its recent national plan, the Kiribati Development Plan 2016-19, the government has focused on improving infrastructure for the energy sector, including in renewables. The Kiribati Joint Implementation Plan on Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management notes the vulnerability of women, youth and children. In the past, Nauru’s economy was dependent on the phosphate industry, which also fuelled its energy demand.",7,True
f20e998,"At the operational level, a skilled workforce is needed for building and operating installations. The main instruments for reaching policymakers and C-Level decision makers are industry-run instruments. An example at the national level in Germany is the ""Maritime LNG Platform""15 and at the international level ""Sea\LNG""’4. On the shore.no particular competence standard or model courses for training of personnel directly involved in LNG operations or indirectly related to LNG operations exist.",7,False
4cea1a2,"A way to improve energy efficiency is to tap the huge potential for efficiency gains in the building sector which is the largest single energy consumer in Europe, absorbing 40% of final energy. About 75% of buildings are energy inefficient and, depending on the Member State, only o.4-1.2% of the stock is renovated each year. ( The energy efficiency target on EU level is set on fixed Mtoe-level for final energy and primary energy use in 2030, and the Member States have to set their targets so that this target will be reached. The Commission will lay down a process to ensure that the contributions add up to the Union's 2030 energy efficiency target in the legislative proposal on Energy Union Governance.",7,True
6ee9e4a,"However, at high penetration levels of variable renewables, i.e. above 20% of annual generation, the increase of variability and uncertainty leads to new challenges. The four challenges are summarized in the following table. The system operator needs to have enough capacity available during the hours where electricity demand is the highest, plus a reserve margin to cope with contingencies.",7,True
b4c7eb6,"The project is huge on several scales: at 4 800 MW, the plant will be the seventh-largest in the world, and the estimated construction costs of USD 17.8 billion is equivalent to 10% of South Africa’s GDP. The electricity from the plant will provide much-needed supply to South Africa’s mining and other industries, as well as generally supporting the quality of supply for household users. And being situated close to large low-cost domestic resources of coal provides a secure supply of fuel. The decision by the South African government to support this project was backed up by the World Bank which is providing just over USD 3 billion of loans, and USD 2.5 billion from the African Development Bank (Sovacool and Rafey, 2011).",7,True
2e34262,"The central government had been planning to capitalise on the good wind resource in the north of the country by increasing production of wind energy in these areas. It had selected several sites for locating wind farms. However, as the production of RE does not represent a concrete advantage for the hosting communities, and as there is a general perception that negative externalities are not being compensated for by the RE policy, they have tended to oppose them.",7,True
a669740,"The proportion of the region's population living in slums fell from 34% in 1990 to 21% in 2014 (see figure V.19). In terms of absolute numbers however, although 2 million people left the slums, over 100 million still live in such settlements. This is exemplified by the negotiation of the New Urban Agenda, adopted at the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III), held in 2016.",7,False
79e0149,"Energy efficiency has very low priority in practice, determined by the fact that such a large proportion of the population does not have secure and reliable access to energy . This Programme aimed to ensure that the country’s distant regions receive power at a low price. It proposed construction of 189 small HPPs (SHPPs) with a total capacity of 103 MW by 2020, and generation of 800 million kWh of electricity per year.",7,True
120a683,"Throughout this week, electricity prices are relatively high, with a clear day-night pattern. Night prices of around 50 EUR/MWh are close to the marginal cost of coal fired power plants, while the higher prices during day times of around 90-100 EUR/MWh are close to the marginal cost of natural gas fired power plants. Total consumption (red dashed line), however, is more constant over the week, because electricity consumption for heating and pumping (pumped storage) increases at night, when electricity prices are low.",7,True
fbae4ae,"However, in the earlier stages, RD&D accounts for a larger share of performance improvements and cost reductions. While the depression is very disruptive and particularly destructive for the poor, it does at least potentially sow the seeds of renewal, provided that the world is prepared to make the necessary institutional and financial investments. This needs to occur without risking irreversible changes in ecological, biophysical and biochemical systems.",7,False
eea211b,"The IAEA uses ICTs to support Member States in improving the functionality, safety and security of existing and new Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) to ensure Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7) and improve Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure (SDG 9) by managing complex nuclear lifecycle technology systems. However, the applications of nuclear techniques - and the IAEA's work -in fact extend far beyond just nuclear energy. The IAEA's work extends into the education and training of health professionals in nuclear medicine techniques (SDGs 3 and 4 on health and education, respectively), monitoring of marine contaminants (SDG 14).",7,True
e32d3fe,"Since poor households tend to consume little electricity, they would likely benefit from overall reduced rates, or a “lifeline rate”. Commercial and industrial users could be charged higher rates, while SMEs would need more favourable treatment. Other ways to mobilize resources through tariffs include setting a transparent energy surcharge applied to higher income, commercial or industrial consumers, and using the proceeds to extend the service to poorer consumers.",7,True
a192b08,"Furthermore, the most severe accidents have occurred in these stages. Most of the severe accidents involved tankers (collisions, explosions, fires and impact with the ground) and road accidents during regional distribution. In the oil chain, fatalities are fairly evenly distributed among workers and the public (Burgherr and Hirschberg, 2008a).",7,False
a3698a9,"In 2009, wind energy accounted for 56%of global clean energy investment. Investment in solar energy follows wind’s leading position and is poised to expand as a result of declining solar energy prices and the potential of new, thin-film technologies as noted by Pew (2010). New investment in biomass, geothermal and small hydro seems to play a marginal role in the total market (see Figure 7). Financial sector new investment (incl.",7,True
2d53905,"Indeed, the rising incidence of non-standard employment has widened the gap in earnings distribution and contributed to an increase in poverty. In Germany, the total income gain of households has gone to the richest 10 per cent of households since 2003 (Parma and Vontobel, 2009:129). The recent widening of inequalities marked a complete reversal of the previous trend.",7,False
ebaac7f,"The world’s leaders call for massive investment in the developing world, and UNEP insists that this investment be in green development. The International Energy Agency estimates that some $44 trillion - over and above the business-as-usual scenario - will be needed by 2050 to meet even the lowest of the IPCC’s estimates for stabilizing global climate, most of it in the developing world. Indeed, the agreements and contracts signed contain clauses that make a sustainable approach to development well-nigh impossible. We call for one thing in our political declarations, but do a very different thing in reality.",7,False
1f713fd,"Scepticism about the science is no longer an option: the world’s scientists have never been so unanimous, and so ominous, in their projections of future perils. The bad news is that too many participants in the debate consider a climate policy as consisting primarily of manipulating markets and prices. If the only tool available were market liberalization, then the solution to every problem would seem to be a matter of getting the prices right. But setting a price for carbon emissions is only the beginning of climate policy - not the end.",7,False
41c57d6,"According to the IEA’s WEO-2011, 1.3 billion people - nearly 20% of world population - currently lack access to electricity and about 2.7 billion people - 40% of the world population - rely on the traditional use of biomass for cooking (IEA, 2011a). The outlook suggests that the problem will persist and even deepen in some places. The IEA and World Health Organization estimate that household air pollution from the use of biomass in inefficient stoves would lead to more than 4 000 premature deaths per day in 2030, greater than estimates for premature deaths from malaria, tuberculosis or Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) (IEA, 2011a). The index seeks to capture the quality of energy services as well as their quantity. It is calculated in such a way as to mirror the United Nations Development Programme’s Human Development Index.",7,True
a193687,"In 2012,63% of trips during morning and evening peak times were on public transport, compared to 59% in 2008. To increase this number even further, the LTA aims to make the transport system even more accessible and competitive. By 2030, 80% of households should be within a 10-minute walk of a train station, 85% of public transport journeys (less than 20km) will be completed within 60 minutes and 75% of all journeys in peak hours will be via public transport.",7,False
3a738c0,"There is also a number of construction and operations contracts across the country for wastewater treatment plants, desalination facilities and reverse osmosis units. Because agriculture accounts for 71% of water usage, there are some arrangements whereby farmer associations in the Jordan Valley have been contracted by the local authority to manage water distribution in the area. The number of associations is expected to increase to ten by 2020 (EDP 2011-13).",7,False
c085ee6,"This kind of system has been used successfully in Norway over a decade. As trees grow they continuously sequester carbon from the atmosphere. As cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and other wood and bark components will be used for new purposes carbon can be stored for longer times in plastics and fabrics, and for shorter times in pharmaceutical products, chemicals, food and beverages, and so on.",7,False
8782ae7,"Durante is a fully integrated business that, in addition to fish products, offers a full range of services, including advisory services and franchise systems to mid-scale farmers. It is one of Nigeria's leading fish-farming businesses (NRI, 2014). Durante shifted away from tank culture to pond and cage culture because of power cuts and water constraints.",7,False
f7eacc7,"In 2008, 70.8% of India's total population lived in rural areas, progressively migrating to urban areas at an annual rate of 2.3%, a rate which is below that of many other countries (UNPD, 2008). While such economic development has led to an average increase in the standards of living, it has left the agricultural sector untouched, bypassing most of the rural poor. Therefore, although India has enjoyed a growth of GDP per capita, poverty remains a challenge. Poverty is also more concentrated in some states such as the eastern and north-eastern states as Figure 7 shows. In March 2007, the Indian Planning Commission estimated that over the 2004-2005 Page | 63 period, more than one-quarter of India's total population (27.5%) still lived below the poverty line (BPL), with a distribution of 25.7% urban dwellers and 28.3% rural dwellers (Planning Commission, Government of India, 2007)37 as seen in Table 17. But strong economic growth alone does not bring such amenities to the rural poor.",7,False
8e536e2,"Given industry’s substantial contribution to global energy intensity, credible specific industrial energy-efficiency targets must be formulated. But to keep increases in industrial energy consumption to the minimum required to satisfy development needs, future efficiency efforts must be ambitious. They must double today’s pace and reach energy intensity reduction rates similar to those in the 1990s. Doubling the industrial energy-intensity reduction rate is consistent with a similar exhortation made at the global level in the AGECC (2010) report.",7,True
b00839d,"In most countries governments are significant energy users, and government operations present significant opportunities for efficiency improvements. By procuring energy efficiency services from the private sector, governments can help build capacity and critical mass within this important service sector. This is a win-win option, since energy use is major public sector expense.",7,True
66289f6,"This section focuses specifically on energy supply, the next section considers energy use. The approaches and tools presented here address, in turn, the policy, regulatory, and economic dimensions of the enabling environment. National energy policies should integrate renewables into the country’s energy portfolio, engage the private sector in technology development, build confidence in the financial community about renewable technologies, and where appropriate co-ordinate investments across national boundaries (IEA, 2001). Such policies can support co-operation among institutions and provide guidance in selecting low-carbon options tailored to unique country circumstances and priorities.",7,True
240855d,"Connecting an individual consumer to a power plant would be prohibitively expensive. However, each additional customer in the area reduces the average cost for all involved since the cost for connecting the additional customer is small. The physical link through the grid, however, not only links customers to a producer but also links all producers with each other.",7,True
53ec7d9,"The country's potential in developing energy production technologies like wave power and osmotic power is also substantial. Norway is Europe's largest producer of hydropower, which delivers 99% of the country's electricity. On January 1 2008, Norway had a total installed capacity of 29030 MW at 699 hydropower stations larger than 1 MW. The Kvill-dal hydropower station in Rogaland county is Norway’s largest, with a maximum generating capacity of 1240 MW.",7,True
f73531f,"Although specific training and one-on-one guidance was necessary for the initial transactions, the deals that followed were orchestrated by the local banks. The programme would probably not have been so successful without the indirect training of personnel and bankers. Such sustainable success was also found in the Eastern European implementation of the programme by the IFC.",7,False
bddb120,"Building an attractive rurality for young people is a major public policy challenge. Restoring the attractiveness of rural areas and achieving a new inclusive and equitable rurality is fundamental for rural territories to benefit from having more and better educated young people with a greater capacity for innovation. Thus, the rural agenda increasingly overlaps with the indigenous agenda, which includes an integral vision of that world, as territory and habitat, and not only as a space and production resource. Nonetheless, public must also be formulated for rural Afrodescendent populations, which are significant in various countries and constitute one of the least visible social groups.",7,False
1e88898,"The location was selected because of the competitive labour cost, skills and physical infrastructure. The layout and design of buildings draw from the latest standards developed in the industry, such as those established by the US Customs authority after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, to ensure security of trade, and safety at work, after the fire disasters in Bangladesh textile factories in April 2013. A one-stop government service has been introduced to cut red tape and improve the business environment. The China Civil Engineering Corporation, a leading construction company is building the park as a turnkey ""design and build"" project.",7,False
99db71a,"The surveys fed into the ""Sustainability Index Consortium"", an open platform database that allowed for analysis of the information collected from Walmart's 100,000 suppliers. At a Global Sustainability Milestone Meeting in Beijing in 2008, Walmart's chief executive officer announced plans to expand participation to 70 per cent of suppliers by 2017, making clear that failure to participate in the index would lead to removal of the firm from Walmart's supply chain. They typically address quality, cost and delivery procedures and, increasingly, environmental processes.",7,False
8a1db84,"Despite benefiting from past investments that have given it the second-longest commuter rail system in the US, investment has not kept up with the region’s needs. The Chicago Tri-State metro-region's competitiveness is being undermined in part by the growing inadequacy of its transportation infrastructure, which is typified by high rates of road congestion. Over 80% of the 4 009 stream miles assessed in Illinois are considered sufficiently polluted to prohibit primary human contact (e.g. swimming) (IEPA, 2010).",7,False
84b83b4,"These initiatives need to be encouraged, carefully monitored, and expanded where successful. Fiona Stewart is a principal administrator in the Financial Affairs Division of the OECD’s Directorate for Financial and Enterprise Affairs. The views expressed are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not reflect those of their organisations or the governments of OECD Member countries. The authors are solely responsible for any errors.",7,False
ce314e9,"Looking forward, the development of storage technologies and the development of international interconnections are foreseen to further facilitate the integration of wind and solar power. In these situations, balancing the power system during periods of low load will necessitate further adaptations to maintain the physical parameters of the network. An ongoing IEA work within the Grid Integration of Variable Renewables project (GIVAR) analyses these options in more detail. Hence, it will be necessary in the next 20 years to keep some conventional power plants online to provide ancillary services and ramp-up capabilities.",7,True
aa2283e,"Compared with other instances of social costs, one may think of tobacco smoking or lead concentration in drinking water, this process has developed reasonably quickly. First, there is public awareness and opinion creation by means of public communication. These may be commercial means of communication, such as television or newspapers, but also non-commercial means of public awareness creation such as demonstrations, sit-ins, public speeches and the like. Again, information is the first step in internalising external costs. This way, the set of choices is transformed into new choices that integrate a higher share of public concerns.",7,False
cc7025b,"Electricity access is commonly acknowledged as a basic need for human development (Scott and Seth, 2013), and has been described as a moral imperative, socially prudent and an economic necessity (GEA, 2016: 19).  Aside from the public-good dimension of safe and reliable electricity supply, consumer protection and guaranteed access are important political-economy considerations (Bamber et al., 2014; Scott and Seth, 2013). Such energy-security concerns generally serve to reinforce State control and regulation of the electricity sector (Kuik et al., 2011).",7,True
8eb7b5b,"The development of a shared evidence base and understanding of the city’s problems will help future planning and enable Sydney to better showcase its strengths and weaknesses to State and Federal policy makers. This is particularly relevant to the sustainability agenda where key stakeholders were beginning to come together across the city. Building on these relationships and partnerships should be a priority, in order act as a catalyst for a citywide sustainability strategy, which could potentially be seen as a working template for future city wide strategic partnerships and work.",7,False
0937032,"Over the past decades, appliances have become increasingly energy-efficient. In the EU, for instance, there was a rapid increase in the market share of the most energy-efficient appliances. Sales of Class A refrigerators increased from less than 5 per cent of total sales in 1995 to 23 per cent in 2000 and 61 per cent in 2005, in addition, 19 per cent of refrigerators sold in 2005 were in the two new, more efficient classes (A+ and A++). For washing machines, progress was even more rapid: with an increase in sales of 1 per cent in 1996, 38 per cent in 2000 and 90 per cent in 2005.",7,True
086bd6a,"Significant restructuring of the region’s economy over the past twenty years has transformed the demand for skills, making it more difficult for low-skilled workers to find employment in more knowledge-based, innovation-driven, growing sectors. Despite the higher-than-average levels of educational attainment in the region, chronic low graduation rates from the region’s public post-secondary educational institutions, particularly community colleges, slows the upgrading of the region’s workforce. Further, the increase in specialisation towards higher value-added activities in the Chicago Tri-State metro-region has not gone hand in hand with an increase of the share of the labour force with high qualifications.",7,False
9a6c768,"Many off-shore wind farms have already been built and some governments are actively pursuing the large-scale deployment of this technology. Other low-carbon technologies such as CCS, which has a huge potential, are less mature and require a longer-term vision. Even where carbon pricing has been introduced, these technology policies have been kept or even accelerated.",7,True
2f41aef,"The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies. The European Commission takes part in the work of the OECD. Current NEA membership consists of 30 OECD member countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Republic of Korea, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The European Commission also takes part in the work of the Agency.",7,False
92f97cc,"Tracking progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals requires the collection, processing, analysis and dissemination of data and statistics at the subnational, national, and regional levels, including those derived from official statistical systems and from new and innovative data sources. Many national statistical systems face serious challenges in this regard. As a result, accurate and timely information about certain aspects of people's lives are unknown, and many development challenges are still poorly understood.",7,False
a683a10,This option could lead to achieving the goal of a 40% reduction in energy intensity by 2030. The largest impact in energy intensity reduction will stem from efficiency improvements in the industrial and residential sectors. These products must be rapidly distributed on a large scale to achieve energy savings and reduce worldwide emissions.,7,True
88b18b0,"While it is correct that, aside from hydro (the potential of which is low but of high quality) and wind (which provides low-quality power), modern renewables continue to be significantly more expensive, economic limits are ultimately a lesser constraint, as they can be overcome with political will and special efforts. In fact, most energy technology debates completely disregard associated socio-political limits. In pluralistic democracies, the “not-in-my-backyard” (NIMBY) attitude is a powerful factor.",7,True
83403e0,"Sources of energy like geothermal, tidal power, hydrogen, nuclear fusion and so forth will require a more visionary approach and even greater scientific and technological advancement. These advances, in turn, will require substantial investment which, at present, is not forthcoming from public and private sources on a large enough scale. Only by ensuring a reliable, affordable supply of energy will it be possible to chart a stable course for economic recovery and growth. Addressing energy insecurity and transforming the global energy system must therefore constitute a major priority for any long-term programme of economic and climate stabilization in advanced countries. Such a course will simultaneously address the climate challenge.",7,True
a437163,"Increasingly, governments in high income nations, such as the United States and regional blocs such as the European Union, set market-entry standards that determine the green content of supply chains, particularly for the agricultural and resource sectors, which account for the bulk of Africa's exports. Their power comes from their capacity to threaten non-compliant multinational firms with reputational damage. An alternative strategy by civil society has been to engage big firms in a collective attempt to raise standards and certify best practice.",7,False
b445217,"Low-wage residents are less likely to have access to a car, and commuter train lines and bus routes do not serve the south side of the Tri-State metro-region as well as they serve other parts of the region. Commuting times are even longer for those who commute across the region instead of following the hub and spoke system. Investment in public transport infrastructure does not sufficiently respond to demand for access to jobs, especially in lower -income neighbourhoods. While the Tri-State metro-region ranks high among OECD regions on many technology-based innovation indicators in terms of volume, its position has slipped and it is not among top regions when controlling for the size of its population and economy. For instance, in terms of patents per capita, the Tri-State metro-region ranked 23rd among OECD metro-regions and 11th among US metro-regions in 2007, the last year for which data are available, it ranked 27th and 12th, respectively, when adjusting for GDP (Table 1.5). These are hardly poor scores, but neither do they suggest that the Tri-State metro-region is fulfilling its innovation potential, particularly given that it ranks below so many other US metro-regions, including San Diego, San Francisco, New York, Boston, Los Angeles and Houston.",7,False
8b11589,"Although its ranking in terms of GDP per capita among OECD metro-regions is not as high as it is in terms of GDP (16lh among the 90 metro-regions vs. 8lh), Chicago still counts among the big players in the OECD urban world. With GDP per capita over USD 55 000 in 2008, Chicago ranked higher than traditionally rich European metro-regions such as London, Stockholm, Helsinki, Amsterdam-Utrecht, Paris and Milan (Figure 1.2). Among US metro-regions, Chicago’s GDP per capita is similar to that of San Diego and Philadelphia, but below that of a number of US metro-regions such as New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco-Oakland, Boston or Houston.",7,False
c6d408f,"According to the battery specification, the voltage is 3.3 V and capacity is 0.8 Ah, which implies Cphone = 2.96 [12]. The final parameter is calculated as F = 0.375, derived from the average monthly charging expenses of $2.25 and the average price per charge of $0.20 [3]. Consequently, Ephone = 24.5.",7,False
f60ce5d,"However, urbanization represents an additional challenge. Rapid increases in urban electrification rates in recent years have not matched the absolute increase in urban population, so that the number of urban dwellers without access to electricity has continued to rise. The continuation of such rapid urbanization, together with progress towards universal access, is likely to result in still greater pressure on the (already poor) T&D infrastructure, reinforcing the need for upgrading.",7,True
6c88bec,"Several hotels and universities have also contracted private firm to construct wastewater treatment plants. Certain groups of consumers - particularly in industry tourism, commerce and agriculture - are expected to pay a tariff reflecting the full cost of water service provision. An increase in the water tariff was approved in late 2010, potentially helping to improve cost recovery, but the Ministry of Water and Irrigation stated in June 2012 that tariffs would not increase further in the near future.",7,False
fd5fc87,"It provides financial assistance to producers to install and maintain conservation practices on eligible agricultural and forest land. Energy conservation projects occur as part of the On-Farm Energy Initiative. Landscape AgEMPs have been available since 2009, and take a more holistic view of on-farm energy use, addressing issues, such as water use and erosion. Once the initial energy audit is complete, EQIP helps farmers develop a plan for implementing conservation practices.",7,True
e16e078,"Every time a lender underwrites an eligible loan under this programme, the Connecticut Green Bank reserves a percentage of the loan principal (between 7.5-15%) for the lender in the event of a default (Energize CT, 2013). In the Connecticut model, to promote sound lending practices and share risks, the lender assumes the “first loss” (1.5%) on its portfolio before it is permitted to access the reserve fund. When discussing credit enhancement, the terms guarantee and insurance are often used interchangeably.",7,False
a8ac9bd,"There are, however, many other potential impacts of accidents that are borne by the society as a whole and for which the internalisation is less straightforward and more complex. This is the case for the economic consequences on health and on the business property of a third party or on the environment. The entity liable for the accident is held responsible for the victims’ compensation, which ensures a certain internalisation of accident costs.",7,False
8ca4155,"Electricity grids in the Pacific will need to be strongly interconnected, flexible enough to accommodate this change, and resilient enough to withstand climate impacts, as well as cope with potential demand growth from growing populations and growing electric vehicle use. Commonwealth Pacific small states are more dependent on the fossil fuels used in cars, trucks and boats than for generating electricity, and more cost-effective displacement of fossil fuel can occur through energy efficiency. However, the attention and funding of development partners is not always directed accordingly to these areas. Moreover, although this is improving, consumers generally lack awareness on how they can reduce their energy consumption or be more energy efficient. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that deploying renewables worldwide on the scale necessary to limit global temperature rise below 2 degrees would require current investment to double by 2020, and triple by 2030 to around US$900 billion annually (IRENA 2016b).",7,True
c5d8c2a,"Strategies include building national and regional institutional capacity, cost sharing across borders, governance and regulations, enhancing access to modern energy, developing low-carbon and renewable domestic resources, improving regional energy cooperation and energy security, and promoting private sector participation in energy development. One key focus area is the development of hydropower potential, especially in the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Other activities pertaining to the energy sector include issues related to development of new and renewable sources (including small hydro), addressing the food-energy nexus, standardization and testing. These are captured in the BIMSTEC Memorandum of Understanding on Grid Interconnection.",7,True
44c9436,"Moreover, access to water is often intermittent and vulnerable to interruptions caused by droughts or other factors. State of) (2015) Venezuela (Bol. This hinders online access to health, education and government services, and impairs e-commerce among Latin American countries, which could become a tool for regional integration, particularly in the area of digital goods and services.",7,False
3d3e4f1,"Nigeria’s severe shortage of energy prompted the government to establish the University of Lagos National Centre for Energy Efficiency and Conservation in 2008, which is responsible for R&D in energy-efficiency and -conservation options and technologies. Following the 2010 enactment of the Russian Federation’s energy-efficiency legislation, the country has intensified efforts to create an R&D capacity in energy efficiency. The Russian Federation recognizes the role of a growing number of organizations engaged in research on improving energy efficiency, such as the Centre for Energy Efficiency, the Sustainable Energy Development Centre and the Institute of Energy Strategy. Standards for industrial equipment and system optimization can make it easier for firms to trade off capital and energy costs, but they can also impose limits on product choice and undesirable costs for adopters.",7,True
345885f,"Sustainability Advantage is a business support service from the Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW. It is designed to help organisations understand sustainability, successfully manage for a better environment and add business value79. Industry' Investment NSW offers “LEAN and green” business master classes for people who want to learn how they can improve business efficiency through the application of “lean” business practices, coupled with environmental sustainability, to reduce costs, increase profits, open new markets and create jobs . Despite initiatives like these, it is not always easy for SMEs to take up training opportunities in skills for sustainability.",7,False
a676fee,"Energy poverty both signifies and drives overall poverty. More than 95% of the world population without electricity lives in Sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asia. In Sub-Saharan Africa, two-thirds of the population (620 million people) does not have access to electricity (IEA 2015a). Lack of electricity is generally most prevalent in rural areas.",7,True
59fb5d4,"More specifically, it analyses the impact of risks - actual and perceived -associated with EE projects. Much has been written about the many barriers to energy-efficiency investments, including market organisation, price distortions, split incentives, lack of information, transaction costs, institutional biases, product availability, regulatory policy, and others.3 This report does not delve into the full array of these barriers. Instead, it focuses on the financial and risk barriers.",7,True
ed8a18f,"Some firms might be more sensitive to some types of barriers than to others. One is commonly known as the rebound effect. An example is the driver who replaces a car with a more fuel-efficient model, only to take advantage of its cheaper running costs to drive further and more often. Rebound effects have long been neglected, but their consequences could be profound.",7,False
4fa67cf,"Some energy efficient devices (e.g. variable speed drives) may be more susceptible to voltage or frequency fluctuations on the grid. Energy efficient devices moreover often involve new technology with low operating experience. The highly technical realities underlying such investments result in investors demanding an implicitly higher rate of return to offset the perceived higher risk of energy efficiency projects. Finally, a perception of high transaction costs can emerge because of the small size of EE projects relative to other projects.",7,True
6dcd628,"Since 2007 Italy has provided tax relief for energy efficiency improvements to existing buildings including the installation of double-glazed windows, thermal insulation, high-efficiency boilers and the installation of solar panels. In 2009, building owners submitted 240,000 tax credit applications. As the programme was originally expected to be terminated in 2010, the number of applications in 2010 exceeded the previous year by around 71%.",7,True
9cecb4e,"Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Svalbard have experienced an increase in tourism levels as well, though at a lower level than Iceland, with a growth ranging from 15% to 45% since 2012. As the duration of the visits have not increased, the increased spending is caused by a higher daily spending by the tourists. Tourism may create short and long-term profits and jobs for a region leading to economic growth, provided it is managed sustainably.",7,False
a5cca94,"Green job growth over the next 5-10 years is expected to be highest in the building and transportation sectors. Higher energy consumption, rising greenhouse gas emissions, road congestion and deteriorating water quality are the negative externalities that have come with urban growth. Many metropolitan regions across the OECD have turned their attention to the concept of green growth as a means of increasing economic competitiveness through addressing environmental challenges (Box 1.1). What do we mean by urban green growth?",7,False
9c5f1fd,"On the production side (industry, commerce and agriculture), significant changes are expected as the economy grows nearly eightfold. This implies a massive expansion of the commercial/services sector (by a factor of six), a significant expansion of manufacturing activity, and more limited growth of activity in agriculture. However, water needs to be pumped from increasing depth and this is the main source of electricity demand in agriculture. Sources: IEA, 2009b, IEA, 2010a, IEA, 2009c.",7,False
f833e8a,"In addition, in 2014, EUR 5.8 mln from local budgets was used to finance energy efficiency measures (EEA, 2015). To date, there have been three calls. The first, in 2013, was launched for public institutions (including schools and hospitals), resulting in the selection of 86 projects worth a total of MDL 135 mln (about EUR 78 000 per project on average).",7,True
96f153a,"Consequently, there are more business options for the forest industry and forest-based raw materials than ever before. It still needs to be remembered that all four levels must be able to co-exist also in the future, even if their shares may change. All that can be produced without felling trees, e.g. carbon sinks, berries, game, tourism, etc.",7,False
f386240,"For example, in Kenya, the paper manufacturer Chandaria Industries experienced savings of 40 per cent in energy, 48 percent in materials and 181 percent in water through involvement in the programme. Primary education is critical for developing a semi-skilled labour force. In low-income countries with large rural sectors, it can be vital for equipping farmers with the basic skills necessary to their being informed on and implementing sustainable agricultural and forestry practices. However, while the significance of achieving universal primary education is highlighted by its inclusion as a Millennium Development Goal, secondary, vocational and tertiary education are just as important in the field of green technology. Secondary education can provide core skills and knowledge needed for countries’ economic growth. Vocational schooling can be particularly useful in building technological competencies, successful vocational education also provides important links between education and industry.",7,False
dacf870,"In addition to targets, the scope of instruments related to renewable energy being introduced is also broadening, demonstrating a deepening commitment towards renewable energy. For instance, Sri Lanka, under its latest energy sector development plan, is seeking to significantly increase the share of renewable energy while reducing petroleum imports, which have risen dramatically over the past decades (Sri Lanka, Ministry of Power and Renewable Energy, 2015). Pacific Island States, particularly the Cook Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu, are leading the region in setting up an ambitious target of 100 per cent renewable energy. Additionally, under the country’s Energy Development Strategic Action Plan, hydro is expected to reach approximately 350 GW.",7,True
c5856e7,"This corresponded to 32% of the total final energy consumption in the entire region. In parallel, India’s industry will play an increasingly important role as a driver for energy consumption in the region. While India’s industry accounted for 7% of the TFC in emerging Asia in 2013, this share is expected to increase to 13% by 2040.",7,True
f334fd4,"Both systems also heat water, which integrates with the existing systems on campus to heat the buildings and provide hot water on campus. The system not only provides a sustainable energy system for the campus. For northern communities, the bioenergy project shows how future energy supply in areas with access to biomass may provide a sustainable energy supply.",7,True
350dd02,"Where energy supply is unreliable, firms are more concerned with availability than with efficiency. Similarly, small and medium-size industrial firms find it much harder to get a loan than do larger firms. And while the barriers to energy efficiency are also present in developed countries, they are more formidable in developing countries. What are the appropriate roles of the public and private sectors?",7,True
e8a4f33,"An enabling policy environment is important for the development of a strong and competitive renewable energy sector to supply both industrial and domestic consumers. Section 3 identifies key enabling policy factors required for the replicability and accelerated uptake of the available renewable energy solutions throughout the mining sector. Major companies and conglomerates, among others, such as Glencore, Barrick Gold, Rio Tinto, Antofagasta, Codelco and IAMGOLD have all made use of renewable energy in their mines (Table 2.1).",7,True
a894871,"Those efforts usually require discrete but complementary top-down actions by governments. Some cases exist, however, in which a natural, market-led and bottom-up co-evolution of development occurred, as with the Kumasi Hub recycling project in Ghana. This vehicle repair and metal-working cluster in Suame, a constituency in the Kumasi Metropolitan district, is remarkable for its scale and the technical skills available.",7,False
8944e4c,"An innovative economy is based on interactive learning, information exchange, timely availability of finance and other resources, and coordination among firms, universities, research centres, policymakers and other actors. Building technological capacities can help developing countries “catch up” with more advanced countries, and innovation policy must play an important role in facilitating sustainable development. The present chapter argues that green sustainable development-oriented innovation policies should be an integral part of countries’ national development strategies.",7,False
cf074db,"If the latter are already difficult to determine for marketed goods, the intrinsic complexity of external costs prevents the establishment of social welfare functions adopting a broader notion of welfare. To a large extent social costs are external, i.e. not internalised, precisely because no well-defined utility functions exist. Discussion quickly shows that any framework based solely on static optimisation will run into internal contradictions.",7,False
bd08a1f,"Prices that are too low or too volatile discourage investment. Volatile prices also discourage consumers, particularly if their demand elasticity is low. It is a challenge to reach optimal investments levels. Liquid markets on the one side and long-term contracts on the other are important factors in providing investors in producer countries with the necessary visibility for investing in adequate capacity for production, storage and transport.",7,False
bd0e3d3,"For low-level consumption the higher income group is charged 150 per cent of the price paid by the low-income group. With a sufficiently large consumer base that has enough high-income consumers, the water tariff enables the recovery of costs and the progressive structure supports poor people. The costs are associated with operating, maintaining and extending the water networks and providing basic levels of service.",7,False
e642ffc,"The percentage of the population that has access to electricity ranges from 18 per cent in PNG to 100 per cent in Samoa (Figure 9.4). A larger proportion of hydro power, for example in Fiji, is likely to reduce the electricity tariff, whereas a country that relies mostly on fossil fuels, such as Kiribati or Tuvalu, is more vulnerable to increasing oil prices. Another factor affecting the residential electricity tariff is whether it is subsidised through the Government budget, for example in Fiji, or using a cross subsidy from larger users of electricity, for example in Vanuatu. Each power utility in each country determines its tariffs differently.",7,True
ae44765,A discussion of the rebound effect in energy efficiency is needed that incorporates not just the expected energy savings from energy efficiency but also the wider socioeconomic outcomes. Policy measures are needed to overcome the market and behavioural failures that lead to less investment in energy efficiency than is optimal. It is important to overcome critical challenges that involve complex synergies and trade-offs among the different aspects of energy efficiency policy.,7,True
db6cc68,"Under this Programme, homeowners received grants of up to US$6,000, deducted from their loans, for incorporating energy efficient measures into their homes, such as east-west orientation, white roofs, radiant barrier insulation under roofs, tinted windows, shading, ceiling fans, energy efficient lighting, and solar or instantaneous hot water systems. Following the adoption of the programme by the Palau Housing Authority, every new housing loan in Palau is eligible for the grant. The programme was later revised to include existing houses and for loans for solar PV.",7,True
049da0c,"This debate is in line with South Africa's rural electrification agenda, as new power generation will be necessary to service more households. The average official unemployment figures are above 20% (see Table 33), excluding the under-employed in the rural and urban areas or those who are not registered in employment agencies. Payment for electricity is an issue for people who have no or very little income. Many cases of domestic violence in newly electrified households have been amply documented. It is argued that domestic trouble starts over priorities when resources are scarce (Habitat for Humanity, 2009). However, the long-term effect of ensuring universal access to electricity should lead to general opportunities for a broad-based economic development.",7,True
892d08c,"By 2014, more than 1,000 microhydro systems had been installed, with total generating capacity of 22 MW, providing off-grid electricity access to 20 per cent of the population. Credible long-term policy commitment, with flexible approach to implementation and reduced administrative burdens, is essential to sustaining mini-grid deployment. In this respect, the availability of a potential anchor load — i.e., a consumer of a large and possibly stable proportion of the power generated (for instance a small factory, hospital or farmer cooperative) — supplementing households’ electricity demand is usually critical to support mini-grid profitability and increase capacity utilization.",7,True
acbc104,"Electrification of schools, however, is facing problems largely stemming from lack of information about the number of schools and their electrification status. Some municipalities fail to report the number of schools in their area or fail to provide accurate information on whether the schools are electrified or not. It is clear that this poses a major constraint for the entities in charge of the electrification of the as-yet un-electrified schools.",7,True
500020b,"Additionally, renewable energy depends on variable wind, sun and exogenous conditions that are intermittent and more difficult to schedule than conventional fossil fuels. Given the limited and still developing electricity storage technology' at utility scale, it is economical to integrate intermittent renewables into larger, flexible electricity systems. The fossil fuel-based generation can be backed down when renewables are available, and with an electricity grid system that covers large geographical areas, the available average renewable resources would be easier to schedule.",7,True
0cbfc99,"All regressions are based on the same 36 observations at the national level and 360 observations at the sub-national level per year and are weighted by the sample size of the education-experience-year cell. All regression models include education, experience, and period fixed effects, and a full set of two-way interactions. In this context, the educational attainment of foreign- and native-born workers is also taken into account. Thereafter, the chapter looks at factors that help explain why the contribution of foreign-born workers may be different from native-born workers based on qualitative studies of selected sectors.",8,False
72314d3,"The SNA data on household income are first divided by the population size. They are then multiplied by the ratio of the average household income of each decile to the average household income in the IDD, to give an estimate of an average household income by decile that is consistent with the SNA totals. Unemployed persons are defined as those who are currently not working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work.",8,False
a15751a,"These, however, also constitute opportunities for those responsible for tourism and water policy to work closely together. In the future, tourism-related water use intensities are expected to increase, while water availability in many regions will become more restricted due to competing uses and climate change leading to lower precipitation levels in many regions. In order to adapt to inevitable changes in water availability, as well as to mitigate its own contribution to climate change and its pressure on limited water resources, tourism needs to engage with policy areas responsible for energy- and water management, with a clear focus on policy making, including compliance with national greenhouse gas reduction goals, building codes, measurement and charging of water consumption, compliance with water benchmarks, and, possibly, mandatory education for staff in accommodation to engage in water saving measures.",8,True
24be9ba,"Also, several illnesses other than cancer should be looked at simultaneously, which would be very data demanding. As an alternative, life expectancy can be selected as the health variable. It could be argued that life expectancy variables show little variation among OECD countries and over time (and thus do not help discriminating between policy effects). However, weak variability among countries does not seem to be borne out by the data, even if only OECD countries are considered11.",8,False
94185c4,"While conclusive data is not available on whether these deportations amount to “revolving door” movements (i.e. the same person being deported several times in a year) there are strong indications that this is the case. ( This Green Paper is the result of a long consultation process, first announced in 2008, and involving a broad spectrum of South African, regional and international stakeholders starting in 2013. The process culminated in December 2015 with a colloquium called for by the minister in order to compile all contributions into a final document which was subsequently turned into the Green Paper submitted to public comments between June and September 2016. This is a particularly innovative process for the DHA since 1996 (the previous consultation for the 1997 Green Paper) as most channels of communication between the DHA, other spheres of government, and South African social partners and civil society have been intermittent.",8,False
fda6379,"Some European countries have schemes allowing naloxone to be taken home by the drug user (EMCDDA, 2017(48)). A few countries have drug consumption rooms, where death from overdose is much less likely. Almost all countries have needle and syringe programmes, which can prevent the spread of infectious diseases, which can be very expensive to treat (such as hepatitis C).",8,False
9de1e5f,"Every employer is required to apply the measures needed to effectively protect the life, safety and health of its workers, for which it must provide suitable premises, provide work equipment and adopt methods aimed at reducing and eliminating occupational hazards in the workplace. Specifies the just causes that allow the worker to terminate the employment relationship, with entitlement to compensation for unfair dismissal. The wage is unattachable up to the amount of the legal minimum wage. Also unattachable, among other things, is the full amount of the sums received by the worker in respect of retirement and pensions.",8,True
7d6882a,"Additionally, training and awareness-raising with business leaders could also be useful in promoting a wider understanding and recognition of the importance of RBC. Educational institutions such as business schools can be important platforms. Adoption of the Guidelines and the UN Guiding Principles should be actively encouraged, as promoting local capacity and adopting practices that permit the transfer and rapid diffusion of technologies and know-how is encouraged under the Guidelines.",8,False
1105665,"Finally, employers in some countries appear to be showing a greater propensity to hoard labour than in past recessions.78 By reducing the increase in unemployment, greater reliance on hours adjustment may tend to reduce the build-up of the number of long-term unemployed during the recession and the number of workers withdrawing from the labour force (or postponing labour market entry) due to poor job-search prospects, indirectly reducing hysteresis effects. However, that need not be the case. Labour market segmentation could be further heightened by increased labour hoarding, if the resulting reduction in labour turnover rates places unemployed job seekers at a heightened risk of long-term unemployment, even though there are fewer of them.",8,True
9a86926,"The most advanced of these is the US Small Business Administration (SBA) in co-operation with the SBA Office of Advocacy (which actually sets legal quotas for the proportion of federal government contracts to be awarded to small businesses). Good practice measures also exist in Canada, Denmark, Korea, the United Kingdom, Romania and others. A number of European good practices are noted in the “SMEs’ access to public procurement” section of the European Commission 2009 document, “European Charter for Small Enterprises: 2009 Good Practice Selection” (European Commission, 2009).",8,True
f850fd8,"In particular, assessing the impact of job quality on labour productivity based on firm-level data, as well as exploring the role of institutions, labour market policies, firm type and management practices in generating a virtuous cycle of higher quality jobs, better health and higher productivity would provide further critical evidence for giving job quality the place it deserves in the policy recommendations on labour market performances. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Turkey recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC).",8,True
84a2bf1,"Naloxone and similar drugs have proven efficacy in reversing the effects of opioid overdoses and thereby saving lives. Making these drugs more widely available would help reduce deaths from overdose. Some European countries have schemes allowing naloxone to be taken home by the drug user (EMCDDA, 2017(48)). A few countries have drug consumption rooms, where death from overdose is much less likely.",8,False
0f068d8,"In the absence of the above, some of the data can also be obtained from the administrative data on child care. The existence of national legislation that supports external child care or even gives the right for child care to parents should be documented. Breakdowns of the indicator by component groups such as sex, industries, occupational group, and status in employment should be added.",8,False
0a5d7d7,"Setting clear, long term, and legally binding frameworks to mainstream and encourage green growth are also key to attracting private investment. It also signed the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species in 1997. On commitments related to climate change, Cambodia ratified the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions in 2002. More recently, the country submitted a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the UNFCCC in 2015 and signed the Paris Agreement in 2016.",8,True
1644ebb,"This suggests that descriptive representation can actually translate into substantive representation for women. There are multiple causal pathways: elected women pay more attention to women’s needs, they are more effective in bringing these bills on the agenda and they can indirectly (or directly) influence male legislators’ priorities (Schwindt-Bayer, 2007). In Latin America, the presence of female legislators lias helped prioritise children and family affairs, as well as on sexual abuse and family violence issues in Argentina, Colombia and Costa Rica (Schwindt-Bayer, 2007).",8,False
2d24efd,"These signs are topped with a distinctive yellow beacon cap and walking person icon. These features makes the signs easy to spot within the urban environment and when viewed from a distance. Each monolith has two maps, a finder map which displays a 5-minute walking circle, and a planner map which displays a 15-minute walking circle. The maps illustrate significant landmarks in 3D, helping users identify the urban environment and also serving as 'mental navigational tools’.",8,False
b7cda60,"The examples of the United States (section 7.10), Finland (section 7.11), and Switzerland (section 7.12) discuss survey issues summarised below. The last example of Mexico (section 7.13) provides experience with connections between satellite accounts. United States, Finland and Switzerland provide a number of country-specific examples regarding the collection of time-use information.",8,False
4b909dd,"While common factors help determine labour market participation for both women and men, women often face a far more restrictive range of such factors compared with men. Household and social norms in the subregion assume that women take the vast majority of responsibility for domestic work and caregiving and are sometimes restricted from labour market participation altogether if household income levels are sufficiently high. Labour market segmentation and economic decision-making norms restrict the range of possible jobs in which women can participate. Low incomes and high informality in segmented occupations and economic activity create significant gender gaps in participation in premium-level formal employment.",8,True
cb6c0c2,"Comparisons are made between the human capital of native-born and foreign-bom workers, including with regard to skills mismatch. This chapter aims to conduct an empirical investigation of the labour market position of immigrants in Ghana based on a review of labour market indicators regarding migrant workers in comparison with native-bom workers. The review will be complemented in Chapter 4 by a formal econometric examination of the labour market impact of immigration.",8,True
47aef1c,"This outlines a simple set of steps on how to build a workforce plan for a business. It includes leading practice techniques, tools and case studies to support businesses in workforce planning and ensure they have the right workers and skills to meet their needs. For more information on Australia’s labour and skills initiatives please visit www.tourism.gov.au/labour.",8,True
d45611e,"It is part of a joint project between EC and OECD (VS/2016/0005 (DI150038), Cooperation with the OECD on Assessing Activating and Enabling Benefits and Services in the EU) covering six countries: Estonia, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Portugal and Spain. The results are published in six separate papers and are also available through the project website: http://www.oecd.org/social/faces-of-ioblessness.htm. Herwig Immervoll coordinated the project and the preparation of this report. All views and any errors are the responsibility of the authors.",8,False
9ef0b9d,"The experience of the networks showed that for an effective co-operation it is crucial to identify the right partners, win them over for an active co-operation and embed the resulting network in the existing support structures of the region. An important learning of the programme was that it takes time to develop these structures. However, such structures are the prerequisite for developing specific support services and embed those in needs-oriented “service chains”. The accompanying monitoring of the programme found that most networks devoted themselves to linking up service chains and optimising interfaces.",8,False
0b98da0,"Two thirds of this support went towards reducing emissions from and improving the resilience of energy, transport and water infrastructure. In support of this, a Climate Change Financing Framework was developed in 2014 to outline the government's plans for mobilising resources to support its NDC. Much of the international climate finance received by Cambodia has focused on providing project level support. The limitations of such approaches include a disaggregation of support across various areas, especially in areas where donor coordination and harmonisation are poor, and reduced alignment with national priorities.",8,False
46aa203,"India has also pioneered in introducing a Gender Budget statement as part of the Union Budget, which can be an important tool for reporting allocations for women. It is to be supported by Gender Budgeting Cells (GBCs) in all Ministries/Departments, which serve as focal points for coordinating Gender Budgeting initiatives, both intra and inter -ministerial. India has pioneered affirmative action and quotas in political representation. Amendments (1992) to the Constitution provided for reservation of one-third seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for women laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local levels.",8,False
243ae8b,"Second, clearly specified service level contracts were agreed between the GORs and their central government departments. These contracts established output and expenditure targets by programme for each region. First, between 1994 and 2000, the Regional Directors leading each GOR reported directly to individual Ministers in their 9 sponsor departments.",8,False
220ab19,"There is a need for a clear target and policy for renewable energy and for these to be reflected clearly in the national power development plan. In places where houses or companies do have solar installed, they are not actively encouraged or compensated to feed excess energy back into the grid. Despite the lack of incentives, a fledgling solar industry has developed in Cambodia with the Solar Energy Association of Cambodia, mostly providing off-grid solutions targeting communities not connected to the grid. Support to government institutions, through multi-donor initiatives such as the Cambodia Climate Change Alliance, have enabled the development and roll-out of important environmental policies including climate change policies and action plans.",8,False
ac16b7b,"This work is contributing to SDG target 16.1, aimed at significantly reducing all forms of violence. Citizens are encouraged to keep active and healthy through the Play for Life programme, which also aims to help keep some of Sierra Leone's traditional sports alive and pass them on to future generations.",8,False
0f2e6f9,"Green Care is a nature-based concept that has evolved especially in the last decade. The development of the concept started especially in The Netherlands, Norway, Great Britain and Italy. It includes a broad array of activities that promotes both physical and mental well-being using nature and natural environments as means to achieve the intended benefits.",8,False
0746bdf,"The deteriorating current account situation has left the countries with lower reserves to fall back on in the event of additional external shocks to exports and capital inflows. Owing to global uncertainties, exports contracted in 2012. Weak external demand affected exports of engineering goods, gems and jewellery, textiles and petroleum products, while imports continued to remain at a high level due to high prices for crude oil, gold and silver.",8,False
11a45df,"When using establishment survey data, due care should be taken to ensure adequate geographic and industry coverage. Administrative record data from medical insurance schemes can provide up-to-date and comprehensive information to calculate the numerator for this indicator. However, the availability and quality of such data vary across countries, and across schemes within countries.",8,False
4a6aa95,"It also holds for poverty: relative poverty is well below the OECD average and material deprivation is low (Nolan and Whelan, 2010). The OECD has recently mapped inequalities across a large number of dimensions and virtually all indicators point in the same direction (Box 1). While this has been true in most OECD countries, the increase in Sweden has been among the steepest (OECD, 201 la). As in most countries, household incomes increased faster at the top of the distribution, but the contrast was particularly stark in Sweden (Table 1).",8,False
dedbf43,"For instance, combined education and health expenditures remain at below 5 per cent of GDP in such countries as Cambodia, Bangladesh and Pakistan (table 1.7). Governments could increase expenditure efficiency and ensure equal access to basic public services. Without such efforts, additional spending may not translate into better development outcomes. For instance, compared with regional peers at the frontier of expenditure efficiency, Pakistan could decrease its public expenditures by some 33 per cent in education and 17 per cent in health to produce the same level of education and health outcomes (figure 1.14, ESCAR 2017a).",8,False
579a2f5,"To align with policy discussions, ‘emergency management’ is the term adopted in this discussion paper. Leveraging these synergies requires building awareness of tourism’s potential role in assisting and enhancing emergency management and how emergency management policies can assist tourism agencies (e.g. to reduce the potential negative impacts of misinformation on the recovery of affected destinations/attractions and other destinations within affected countries) in all PPRR phases, and particularly the destination recovery process. In practice, integration between tourism and emergency management policies has been very limited and quite narrow in focus in most countries. This is partly because the focus of tourism agencies has traditionally been on implementing specific actions to mitigate the effects of a disaster or event on tourism businesses (i.e. managing the reputational effects on the destination) and restoring the capacity of tourism businesses (i.e. recovery of markets and profitability).",8,False
7324c37,"This leaves Denmark among the OECD countries with the most favourable tax treatment of interest expenses (OECD, 2018(27)), higher than in both Norway and Sweden. Denmark is among only three OECD countries (Australia and Estonia in addition) with a pure land tax, considered one of the most efficient taxes. In addition, the recent property tax reform will ensure valuations are updated every second year and maintains an element of progressive taxation.",8,False
dbe68b4,"Trajectories are clustered using Ward’s (1963) hierarchical agglomerative algorithm (cf. Quintini and Manfredi, 2009). A number of seven different clusters per data source is imposed, resulting from a trade-off between the greatest possible homogeneity of trajectories within the cluster and the desired differentiability between clusters. Clustered trajectories are matched with information on individual and household characteristics used for the analyses.",8,False
9f72da5,"Chile and Colombia’s gender gaps in LFP are around 22 percentage points, which is still worse than the OECD average but closer to the estimated average of about 25 percentage points across the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region (ILO 2016). Recent improvements in female labour market participation (and reductions in gender gaps) in the LAC region have been tied to greater female education, decreasing fertility and increases in the provision of subsidised childcare (ILO 2016). Data from Peru come from selected urban areas. Other countries’ samples are nationally representative.",8,True
f22690a,"Informality is considered to result from the heterogeneity of the productive structure, which can be seen schematically as two sectors: one which is formal, has a medium to high production level, greater levels of investment, relatively high growth potential and effective social protection, and the other informal, with low levels of productivity, growth potential and social protection. Consequently, unskilled own-account workers, unpaid family workers or apprentices, owners and employees of micro-enterprises and domestic workers are all considered informal. This is related to the introduction of the concept of decent work. In order to focus the discussion on the job rather than the company, the new conceptual framework of the “informal economy"" has been proposed in order to complement that of the informal sector, given that informal activities are found in both low- and high-productivity sectors.",8,True
e84c8ae,"Some states such as Jalisco were already undertaking similar activity but now all of these local initiatives are grouped under the umbrella of this programme. The Ministry of Education will need to work with the Ministry of Economy on this as the school curriculum is decided at national level. Ernst and Young (2011) reported that a failure to integrate women fully into the workforce is costly in terms of GDP, arguing that it is clear that women can add incrementally into a developing nation’s economy. This is also being recognised in the UK, for example the University of East London in 2011 established the Centre of Excellence for Women’s Entrepreneurship. Although Mexico has no exclusive programmes for women in the national system of employment, it is beginning to happen, for example in Queretaro. In 2008, the incubator of the Autonomous University of Queretaro (UAQ) worked with a group of women identifying demand with the department of sustainable development for the local municipality.",8,True
00daedb,"The main issue remains that once on disability benefits or sick the likelihood to re-enter the labour force is limited. But it may also just reflect the fact that inactive people have lower income, hence live in more crowded houses or in cheaper areas far away from job centres. This could be interpreted as suggesting that decisions to enter or leave the labour force tend to be more permanent under these circumstances. No significant relations could be found with the other variables. The difference on the lagged coefficient would imply that a 10 percentage points increase in the share long-term unemployment could lead to a decline in participation 0.6 percentage point lower in the healthiest state than in the least healthy state. S + 5i(GDPls-GDPl-i,s) + 82(LTU,.5) + p (Xs)* (LTU,,S) +8,,s * Xs set of time unvarying structural indicators Results displayed in Table 2.3 show that long-term unemployment increases tend to lead to faster and stronger declines in participation where the share of disability recipients and the health of the population is weaker. On the other hand, higher educational attainment of the labour force tends to reduce this discouraged worker effect.",8,True
628a976,"Implemented initially in 200 districts across the country, the act was notified to another 200 districts in 2008 and it now operates in all of rural India accounting for a total expenditure equivalent to 0.3 of the national GNR NREGA is now the world’s biggest “right to work” programme and providing work opportunities for some 45 million poor rural households. In the wake of the global economic crisis, the number of days of work to which beneficiaries are entitled was increased from 100 to 200. By this token, NREGA contributed to buffer the effects of slower economic growth on the poorest households, in particular for those workers returning to rural areas after they lost their jobs in the cities. The scheme had an influence in providing “livelihood security” for large numbers of people and in ensuring that minimum wages are actually paid for unskilled, casual agricultural work - by far the primary source of earnings for poor households.",8,True
b96c894,Leading migration researchers provided their perspectives on suitable methodologies at an international expert meeting that took place at the OECD in Paris on 23-24 February 2015.a Data constraints sometimes made it impossible to analyse all aspects in every partner country. Each country report and the integrated report provide detailed descriptions of their methodologies. What is the added value of the project? ( The contribution of the foreign-bom employed to GDP in 2010 (1.5%) was just below the commensurate share in employment (1.6%).,8,False
5829bef,"In addition to operating as independent non-banking financial institutions, SOFOLES and SOFOMES have received rising funding from SPYME and NAFINSA to deliver programmes at the local level, which has enabled them to develop also at a period of general crisis. The reverse side is that, in spite of their original objective to encourage SME development, the range of loan size in which these institutions operate suggests that they are rather more active in the consumer credit market and that, as a result, business credit is still concentrated in a few traditional large banks. At present, there are seven large banks in Mexico, six of which are foreign-owned, that accounts for 84% of the total assets in the banking sector.",8,True
521b663,"The new fit2work service, fully implemented in 2013, seeks to avert job losses and long-term unemployment. Health insurance contacts sick-listed employees after around 40 days of absence, offering general information (on possible treatment, for example), counselling and return-to-work support by a network of counselling firms. Waiting times for health services (e.g. psychotherapy) can also be reduced.",8,True
12771b5,"These unemployment queues are lengthening and the pool of the unemployed is getting deeper. Available data show that the widening “earnings gap” does not merely reflect differences in productivity (or investment in human capital), but is more closely associated with better access to highly paid jobs and positions through family connections and institutional factors (for example, endowment of “symbolic capital” a la Bourdieu), which make the labour market highly segmented. High job turnover and more irregular earnings are leading to a large section of the workforce in the ESCWA region falling into the secondary labour market, with low, irregular income and weak social protection.",8,True
8a94a83,"For example, in such countries as Tunisia, the implementation of these programmes, which are seen as a new form of public jobs, has created a serious burden on the budget. In addition, analysis suggests that while the mentioned reform programmes have generated “islands of excellence”, they have failed to initiate broader systemic changes.41 Systemic changes in terms of a structural transformation of Arab economies, diversification away from rents and a move into other technologically advanced sectors, have been on the Arab agenda for a while, and in some aspects the process is on an encouraging path. The share of the manufacturing sector, as well as of services such as telecommunications, trade and tourism, are increasing rapidly. Manufacturing is now the second largest sector in Egypt and Jordan.42 However, many manufacturing enterprises continue the low-skilled, low-value-added and low-productivity trend in the region, often using foreign migrant labour, thereby further emphasizing the comparatively low knowledge content of the economy.",8,True
3b4133d,"The regression analysis shows that labour regulations have reduced female labour force participation and that recent reforms to liberalise them have mostly benefitted male employment (Daymard and Sorsa,2015). This can reflect the fact that the regulations remain rigid and affect negatively formal job creation (Dougherty, 2008). With sufficient reforms more flexible labour markets are likely to benefit job creation for women as well. In this context the proposed amendment to the Factories Bill in 2014 to relax female night work are welcome.",8,True
d3e31aa,"The Department of Labour is planning to introduce an electronic system whereby vacancies registered with them by employers are disseminated to all labour offices more rapidly, and this would be a useful step. The UYF was created in January 2001, and reports to the Ministry of Labour while maintaining its own independent status. The UYF functions as a development finance agency and is tasked with promoting entrepreneurship, job creation, skills development and skills transfer among South Africans between the ages of 18 and 35.",8,True
8fe28e9,"The A start an Opportunity programme targets NEET youth aged 16-25 who have completed compulsory education and hold at most an upper secondary qualification. The programme allows youth to choose among the following options: fully subsidised work experience for five months, training in information and communication skills and integrated counselling including vocational guidance and job-search training. Notably, the conversion of unemployment benefit payments into wage subsidies launched in 2004 was extended to public sector employment in order to offset very weak job creation in the private sector in the context of the economic slowdown.",8,True
e8bff1d,"The Socio-Cultural Blueprint builds on the idea of multistakeholder and multi-sectoral engagement and calls for promotion and integration of Sustainable Consumption and Production Strategy and best practices into national and regional policies or as part of CSR activities (ASEAN, 2016b). The Political-Security Blueprint calls for strengthening collaboration with the private sector and other relevant stakeholders to instil CSR (ASEAN, 2016c). Notably, at the 24* ASEAN Labour Ministerial Meeting on 15 May 2016 in Vientiane, ASEAN labour ministers adopted the Guidelines for Corporate Social Responsibility on Labour to provide broad guidance to governments, enterprises, employers’ and workers’ organisations on raising awareness, proactively encouraging engagement, and promoting social dialogue and compliance with core labour standards (ASEAN, 2016d).",8,True
176fe25,"The underlying measurement framework should be clearly specified. Note: Based on national circumstances, countries may also wish to collect data on activities by children which are outside the general production boundary, such as begging and stealing, and which may need to be considered in the context of the worst forms of child labour. All persons in the age group from 5 to 17 years, where age is measured as the number of completed years at the child's latest birthday (see glossary). It may be designed either as a stand-alone survey or as a module attached to another household-based survey.",8,True
6a4c52b,"Cambodia has a high potential for renewable energy and a fledgling solar industry, spurred in part by donor financed programmes over the past decade. Despite this, no renewable energy policy exists and no incentives are in place to spur the uptake of grid-connected renewables, and power development plans do not reflect the potential for green energy in the country. Similarly, there is no policy framework in place to support energy efficiency.",8,False
101091b,"It strives to ensure that individual, short-term planning decisions support strategic, long-term goals. To be sustainable, tourism transport must be resource efficient, sensitive to cultural and environmental impacts, and benefit (or at least avoid harming) disadvantaged groups. For example, it allows resources currently dedicated to roads and parking facilities to be used to improve alternative modes or implement transportation demand management programs if they are most cost effective overall.",8,True
0764e03,"Differences are lowest in the public sector, and the rural employment programme provides equal pay for both genders. The differences in wages can partly reflect overall education levels and the types of sectors where women work (World Bank, 2012) but discrimination by gender is also likely to contribute. The legal framework for equal pay is not always enforced (Equal Remuneration Act of 1976), partly reflecting the large share of the informal sector (about 95% of employment). Unpaid family workers do not report wages therefore they are not included.",8,True
ff4e5b3,"While not available as a benefit on the federal level, three of Germany’s 16 federal states continue paying a comparable benefit on a state level. Provision for this age group is dominated by the comprehensive ecole maternelle (preschool) system - public, centre-based services that, like the Swedish preschools, are considered a core part of the national education system. Already in the early 1960s the system catered for almost two-thirds of children aged 3-5 years and since 1989, all 3-5 year-olds have been entitled to a place in the local ecole maternelle, with participation effectively at 100% ever since. Public nurseries are complemented by a system of private qualified childminders and in-home nannies, whose cost are partly subsidised.",8,False
0dc1798,"It concludes by analysing performance indicators, which measure the degree of protection that exists against the risks described. These are the attributes on which the ILO bases its definition of decent work, and they serve as a reference for establishing international standards in this area. Unpaid work —in other words, the production of goods and services by household members, for which there is no market valuation but which contributes to family and social welfare— is excluded from the analysis.",8,True
5084f24,"The tax rates are adjusted for country-specific average annual inflation rates over the period 2011-16. A low-rate (high-rate) taxpayer has relatively low (high) income and wealth. Savings in private pensions are assumed not to give rise to reductions in means-tested public pensions, which can raise marginal taxes substantially.",8,False
c04afb6,"Education levels are defined as follows: ‘low-educated’: at most lower-secondary education (ISCED levels 0-2), 'medium-educated': upper- or post-secondary education (3-4), ‘highly-educated’: tertiary education (5-6). Due to missing information on educational attainment for some individuals, there are disparities between the total change in the number of employed youth (diamonds) and the variation aggregated across levels of education for Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway and Turkey. Information on the level of education of employed youth is missing or incomplete for Chile, Japan and Korea.",8,False
6b29fb9,"The cases of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras confirm this: up until 2000, young adults (aged 30-44) displayed a slightly higher level of participation, although the difference was not statistically significant (Figure 3.32). In the last decade, as general violence has been increasing, rates of participation for some segments of the youth population have increased in tandem. Mass media most often highlight organised forms of urban violence among the young (usually males) in gangs by the name of pandillas, maras, clicas or combos, depending on the country.",8,False
1d4daee,"Where data are insufficient or differences small, lower and upper middle-income countries will be looked at as a single middle-income country (MIC) category. Then the definitions are detailed for each labour market concept used in this report, which concludes with an explanation of the data used. Young people under 15 fall under the ILO’s child labour convention and should not be working.",8,True
220a587,"The government has made efforts to improve the legal and regulatory framework for addressing these crimes, but capacity issues remain a persistent challenge in enforcing the existing laws. The legal framework could be further aligned with international norms. In November 2015, all ASEAN member states signed the ASEAN Convention against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. In December 2015, the Lao National Assembly approved the first trafficking-specific law, promulgated in February 2016 (US Department of State, 2016).",8,True
5ebecdf,"For example, the son bias, which seems important in India (see Figure 2.10), can be influenced by the tradition of Dowry payments for girls, which continues despite the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 abolishing it. Another area of weak implementation is inheritance laws (World Bank, 2012), while the equal pay laws were already mentioned above. The monitoring of the implementation of many existing laws on gender equality should be reinforced.",8,False
603c6c9,"However, women in skill cells with a higher share of foreign-bom women do appear to earn higher incomes at the national level. This could be due to the increased participation of native-born women in the labour market due to immigrant women taking over childcare and household services (Furtado, 2015, Peri, 2014, see also Chapters 3 and 5). Furthermore, a significant and positive regional effect is observed when considering the impact on real wages of South African-bom workers - a one percentage point increase in the share of immigrants is associated with an almost 1% increase in the real wages of the native-born workers (Table 4.A2.1). By 2011, foreign-bom employment in agriculture and even more so in industry (including mining) decreased, and more foreign-bom workers became employed in the growing service sectors of the economy.",8,True
e2fb2e2,"However, concerns with regard to labour rights and migration within the sport industry means that attention must also be given to SDG targets 8.7 and 8.8. Sport-based approaches to employment training, entrepreneurship and enterprise have emerged and need to take account of opportunities within the broader economy to maximise their potential. The complexities associated with the collection of such data are magnified when recognition is given to the diverse range of economic activities that are directly and indirectly associated with sport. In countries where there are expertise and available data to undertake such economic analysis, findings have pointed to the growing economic value of sport while also indicating the financial value derived from sport-based interventions that deliver social benefit (Crabbe 2013, Fujiwara et al.",8,True
82c1579,"Far more low-skilled immigrant workers enter the country through other channels: nationality verification, Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), One Stop Service Centre (OSSC), or as border/seasonal workers. The majority of low-skilled immigrants obtain regular status through the nationality verification and OSSC channels, jointly totalling approximately 2.6 million workers. These immigrant workers originate from Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Myanmar. Immigration policies in Thailand have been criticised for “lagging behind reality"", and policy makers appear to be struggling to develop an adequate framework for the governance of migration flows. This is in part due to the diverging perceptions of immigration by employers and workers, while at the same time policy makers aim to govern migration flows in such a way that the economy benefits.",8,False
b47070e,"Support here rightly focuses upon the creation of new activities in innovative intermediate and high-tech areas and upgrading amongst existing businesses. There is evidence that support is being taken up by individuals and businesses on upward development trajectories. This initiating and stimulating effect of public funds is welcome and positive. However, such successful recipients have sometimes continued to receive further and ongoing support.",8,True
41870af,"Festivals and events of this type often provide opportunities to showcase sectors such as culture, music, gastronomy, and the arts. In addition, the economic impact of urban tourism more generally can extend to surrounding rural areas through supply chains to meet growing demand for locally produced food, wine, arts and crafts. It thus presents important economic benefits to rural areas and constitutes an increasingly important market segment, providing significant opportunities for rural businesses to diversify income opportunities (e.g. farm stays) and participate in local supply chains.",8,True
727f603,"Growing pressures on the environment from mass tourism are already forcing some countries to shut some tourism destinations, at least temporarily. To raise the sustainability of the sector, medium-term planning should gradually refocus on increasing yield rather than numbers of tourists. That also means improving the availability and quality of data to allow accurately gauging such targets.",8,True
56d1469,"Such measures include regular workshops, conferences and publications developed in close cooperation with the ministries responsible for transport and for the environment, and the Austrian Rail Company (OBB). Actions are carried out with a view to inform and sensitise stakeholders (tourism, transport, and environment) at national, regional and local levels, concerning sustainable forms of tourism mobility and successful initiatives and projects in this area. This conference was organised as a networking platform to give an overview of the needs and challenges of future tourism mobility. Discussions focussed around the importance of cooperation of the various actors in the fields of tourism, transport and the environment, in order to create mobility solutions to and within tourism destinations that are customer friendly, simple, affordable and sustainable.",8,True
077473b,"The group described as developed middle class and above encompasses workers in developing countries who are equivalent to the lower end of the middle class in the United States and who are able to afford most international consumer goods (Kapsos and Bourmpoula, 2013). Based on the data presented, there is little evidence of a large or substantial employed middle class in the LDCs, which may have negative implications for wider economic growth, investment and employment generation. However, other evidence suggests that in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, over the past 20 years the middle class has been growing quite rapidly (African Development Bank, 2011, Ravallion, 2009a). The ODC sample comprises 32 developing countries.",8,True
dd66664,"Such changes have several implications for regional trading partners. Analysis using the OECD-WTO Trade in Value Added database reveals that for every $10 the region exports to China, $8 is the domestic value-added component (the rest are foreign inputs), of which $6 caters to Chinese final demand (the rest are re-exported to third markets) (figure 1.9). Nevertheless, China is now on par with the United States as a source of final demand for several countries, especially in South-East Asia.",8,False
e58c5c8,"Understanding these differences could help low- and middle-income countries formulate immigration and integration policies that maximise the development potential of immigration. They were selected based on their interest in the project, a substantial (but varying) share of immigrants and a relatively low share of humanitarian immigrants. By working with a diverse group of countries in terms of their geographic location and economic and immigration history and characteristics, the project aimed to provide an indication of the range of possible economic impacts of immigration in developing countries. It therefore addressed not only stakeholders in the ten partner countries, but equally policy makers and other interested parties in other low- and middle-income countries with mid-sized to large immigrant populations.",8,False
d716230,"Strict employment protection rules are also likely to encourage the use of forms of employment that are not subject to these regulations or lead to lack of enforcement of the rules. Concerning youth employment, Cazes and Tonin (2010) find that the decline in the average job tenure of young workers (15-24) in the European Union between 1999 and 2006 is associated with weaker employment protection provided by law and trade unions. Their results suggest that young workers are particularly exposed to more unstable labour markets through the risk of job loss and dismissal (as captured by the EPL index for regular contracts), whereas legislation on hiring (EPL index for temporary contracts) does not seem to have a significant impact.",8,True
79100af,"Available evidence also suggests that unemployed youth in South Africa are at higher risk of contracting HIV than employed youth (UNAIDS, 2004). Even for non-infected youth, HIV infection of other household members may bring onerous care burdens, either of the sick individual themselves or their children who require care, sometimes requiring the healthy individual to withdraw from the labour market. Such care burdens may also constrain the amount of time available for employment or job search activities. Over the past decade there has been a substantial expansion in three main categories of social grant: the pension grant, the disability grant and the child support grant.",8,True
854de53,"Local officers can in some cases collaborate without altering the delivery' of policies and programmes, and flexibility in outsourcing is often restricted through national contracting regulations (Giguere and Froy, 2009). Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), LEED provides building owners and operators a concise framework for identifying and implementing practical and measurable green building design, construction, operations and maintenance solutions. Since its launch in 2005, the PCI has been widely utilised by' provincial governments to inform their economic governance reforms and has served to set a standard, represented by “star performer” provinces. The index has also been used for private businesses to advocate for local initiatives intended to foster an enabling environment for enterprises. The Pact addresses the social and employment impact of the international financial crisis and economic crisis. It promotes productive recovery centred on investments, employment and social protection.",8,True
d775cd0,"The authors are grateful to the model's author, Mr. Luis Martinez, Modeller and Analyst at the ITF. For editorial support the authors thank Ms. Edwina Collins, Content Production Co-ordinator, ITF, Ms. Katherine Farrow, Modeller and Analyst, ITF, and Michael Kloth, Head of Communications, ITF. Further support was provided by Mr. Luke Mackle, Consultant, and Ms. Tabea Klang, former Consultant, both of the Eurasia division. Final editorial and visual support was provided by Ms Vanessa Berry-Chatelain, Communications Manager, OECD Global Relations Secretariat.",9,False
b9049bf,"The “statistical discrimination” theory maintains that discrimination is based on stereotypes: in a context of information asymmetries, employers use an observable identity characteristic of a group (e.g. race or gender) as a signal for an unobservable variable (e.g. skills or productivity) (Phelps, 1972, Arrow, 1973). From early age, boys and girls perceive different stereotyped notions of what they should excel and enjoy in doing, which shapes their behaviours and may even affect their performance (Hill, Corbett and St. Rose, 2010, OECD, 2012a). For example, as early as the first year of primary school, girls rate their own ability in mathematics as lower than that of boys, even when their actual performance does not differ (Fredericks and Eccles, 2002, Herbert and Stipek, 2005).",9,False
366b2f8,"You cannot pick up a newspaper, turn on your TV, or review the Internet news without being aware that regulation is a key topic in the press. There are stories on regulation of the finance sector stemming from the global financial crisis. There are articles on regulation of the press (by the press!),",9,False
e1ffd30,"Implementation will be difficult, because of the proliferation of new, uncoordinated planning mechanisms and the prescriptive approach of Grenelle, which runs counter to the current trend toward greater flexibility in planning (planning by ordonnance). In the Paris-IDF region, such coordination is bound to be complicated due to its position as a global metropolis viewed by the government as strategic, the many players involved in its governance, the fragmentation of fields of intervention, and the diffuse and often opaque nature of the decision-making process. This is all the more true when one attempts to describe “the system of green growth governance in Ile-de-France,” as “green growth” is not currently the explicit object of governance. The region is characterised by a surfeit of administrations - the famous institutional millefeuille comprising nearly 1 300 communes - which frustrates horizontal and vertical coordination among public players. Consequently, it is difficult to strike a consensus on a coherent and shared vision of the region. This fragmentation of local authorities is a handicap for green growth, which requires coordinated spatial approaches.",9,False
cc10cf5,"This tax measure was created in 1997, suspended in 2004 and 2005, re-established in 2006 (under severe public budget constraints imposed by the European Union) and reinforced in 2009. Previously only 50% of such expenditures were taken into account. Before 2006, the tax deduction was 100% and depreciation was 40:20:20:20.",9,False
5c957b9,"Changes in existing processes can only be considered R&D if new methods are applied to improve current processes. While always being closely linked to the System of National Accounts (SNA), the 2008 revision of the SNA adopted the Frascati definitions and derived data to change the treatment of R&D from being intermediate consumption to investments. This change had implications on the calculation of GDP as R&D would be considered production. The re-classification resulted in an increase in GDP by on average 2.2 percentage points in OECD countries. (",9,False
c3dbef2,"They introduced the concept of the “bottom of the pyramid” (BoP), further developed in Prahalad (2005). The International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the World Resources Institute (Hammond et al., They estimated that in 2002, the 4 billion people living in poverty constituted a USD 5 trillion global consumer market, of which the 5 economies of China, Colombia, India, Indonesia and South Africa represented USD 3.2 trillion.",9,False
ab73fa4,"This raises growth opportunities at the national level, and creates space for raising public revenue that can be used for further development expenditure. However, with the lack of infrastructure availability, economic growth suffers and this has a negative impact on the possibility of raising public revenues. Therefore, while inadequate infrastructure leads to a vicious cycle of weak public services and disincentives for private sector investment for economic activities, improving infrastructure helps Governments to generate revenue by strengthening growth. In the short term, building infrastructure boosts aggregate demand through increased construction activity and the creation of employment In the long term, infrastructure investment can boost economic growth by increasing the supply capacity of an economy (World Bank, 2012).5 Infrastructure development and maintenance have several policy implications due to their nature and sustained financing needs.",9,True
537592e,"The Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy (CSTP) approved and declassified this paper on 16 March 2017. The opinions expressed and arguments employed are those of the authors. Comments on Working Papers are welcomed, and may be sent to Directorate for Science, Technology and Innovation, OECD, 2 rue Andre-Pascal, 75775 Paris Cedex 16, France.",9,False
cb4b16f,"This level is barely a fifth of the GDP per capita levels of more than $15,000 (at PPP) that existed in 1970 in developed economies in the region, when services contributed 50% of value added in GDP. Mandaluyong City, Philippines, ADB, 2013). For the stochastic frontier approach, see Denis J. Aigner, C.A. Knox Lovell and Peter Schmidt, “Formulation and estimation of stochastic frontier production function models"", Journal of Econometrics, vol.",9,False
c195a4a,"This success opened the way for Slovenia’s accession to an enlarging European Union, membership in the European Monetary Union, and adherence to the Schengen agreement which greatly facilitates cross-border movement in much of the European continent. In a number of respects Slovenia has been leading among new EU Member States. The country’s efforts were once more recognised when in the summer of 2010 Slovenia also became a member of the OECD.",9,False
7797680,"The unbalanced growth model is based around exploiting scale economies and complementarities in favoured sectors that can induce more investment and productivity growth. Those sectors, in Hirschman’s framework, have more backward and forward linkages, the former referring to provision of inputs from other activities and sectors, the latter to demand for new activities. The development policy challenge is, accordingly, about identifying lead sectors, addressing missing linkages and strengthening inter-industry and intersectoral interdependencies to boost productivity growth. In this sequence, infrastructure would follow rather than lead the growth process. It is largely around this sequencing issue that differences between balanced and unbalanced growth strategies emerged in early development policy debates (see box 4.2). Despite these differences, there was general agreement that in most developing countries, investment in general, and in infrastructure, in particular, involves a series of non-marginal adjustments that are poorly coordinated by markets and for which planning techniques of various kinds are desirable.",9,True
ef28c11,"For their part, governments need to ensure that their own country’s quality infrastructure is ready for industry 4.0. But this growth has stagnated in recent years. This is especially evident in many SMEs, where weaknesses in competitiveness, poor working conditions and low skill development prevail.",9,True
be6c382,"The DAC are also discussing ways to improve knowledge sharing, promote learning, and incentivise innovation in development co-operation policies and practices. While the details of such marker are not yet defined, the proposal to add a new marker on innovation signals DAC members’ increasing ambition towards greater innovation in how development co-operation is planned and implemented. While there are many technological developments across many fields, most references in STI policy are linked to the digital transformation and the access and use of modern information, communication technologies (ICTs).",9,True
807e5b6,"Counting all core funding to multilateral agencies that perform some research would severely over-estimated the amount of STI-related ODA. This relates in particular to many UN agencies, the World Bank, IMF and regional development banks whose core mandate may not necessarily be research or financing STI activities in developing countries, but for which these types of activities are part of their agreed work programme. For example, an activity supporting the development of ICT skills among children may be classified in the CRS as education rather than ICTs.",9,True
2b1a18d,"Although gender-focused aid has been on the rise since the launch of the Millennium Development Goals, there is much room for improvement (OECD DAC, 2014). The total annual average amount of official development assistance (ODA) to support gender equality and women’s empowerment committed by the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors in 2012 and 2013 was USD 25.9 billion, which was only around one-quarter of all sector-allocable aid, both of which are not mutually exclusive (OECD DAC, 2015). Gendered aid is heavily concentrated in education and health.",9,False
032423a,"Conversely, since economic development improves household and individual welfare, the acquisition power of customers is expected to rise (with the caveat of inequality in the distribution of welfare gains). Target 2 was about making broadband affordable: ""By 2015, entry-level broadband services should be made affordable (less than 5 per cent of average monthly income) in developing countries through adequate regulation and market forces. Recognizing the relative nature of affordability targets, Target 1.3 of the ITU Connect 2020 Agenda stated that ""Worldwide, telecommunications/ICTs should be 40 per cent more affordable by 2020"". Following a similar formulation, Target 2.3.A declared that: ""The affordability gap between developed and developing countries should be reduced by 40 per cent by 2020"" (ITU, 2014b).",9,True
02ca9b2,"The workshop was aimed at sharing practical experience in the field of the testing (including remote testing) of equipment, new technologies and services. The meeting was devoted mainly to reviewing the results of the evaluation study of the current regimes governing C&l testing in the Arab Maghreb countries and to the review/ approval of the draft Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA) between the Arab Maghreb countries as suggested by ITU. To this end, the launch of the ITU/UNESCO Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development is aimed at promoting the use of broadband to achieve the SDGs.",9,True
0e43788,"It is expected that new partnerships will be formed between researchers in the United Kingdom and in developing countries, forging greater knowledge exchange and strengthening the capacity for research and innovation in both the United Kingdom and in other countries. Out of a total of 22 projects implemented between 2015 and 2017, 41% were focused on improving digital skills. The remaining projects focused on working with the youth to encourage local entrepreneurship (22 %), expanding access to internet and phone networks (11 %), providing new ICT solutions for greater government transparency, participation and efficiency (19 %), and developing new digital solutions in the health sector (7 %). While investments in the ICT sector have previously been linked to the development of infrastructure, new needs for international support emerges as part of countries’ digital transition.",9,True
1459579,"While some providers include nearly half a page of information for one single activity, other providers may restrict the amount of information to a few words. Nearly all descriptions are in English, however, other languages are also used, which further adds challenges to synthesising the information. Considering that the CRS contains approximately 250 000 activities per year, it has previously been challenging to process the amount of information captured in these description.",9,False
f4e698e,"The framework requires that infrastructure development is seen from a holistic perspective in terms of these interdependencies and that planning horizons are longer term, accounting for the full lifespan of the system and of the individual assets. Relational databases that enable us to structure and analyze data have been part of mainstream product offerings since the mid to late 1970s. Spatial databases to represent objects defined in geometric space are common today, as are geospatial systems that enable us to work with detailed geographical information.",9,True
2f05908,"While becoming closely integrated into the European and global economy, Slovenia has kept a strong sense of national identity placing high value on its language and culture. Already before 1991, Slovenia had been at the economic forefront within former Yugoslavia. In the two decades that followed, bold decisions, sound economic policy and hard work yielded success and resulted in stability as well as a strong position of this small country of two million inhabitants in Central Europe.",9,False
6a116d2,"Prior to this configuration (1975-98), the administrative structure included over three times the number of vovoideships and the powiat level did not exist. There are three legal types of municipalities: 1) urban communes, 2) rural communes, 3) urban-rural communes. These are translated into country-specific recommendations and target objectives. Within the EU policy framework there is scope for country members to determine their own complementary priority areas and as such, Poland’s rural policies are a mix of both EU and national priorities (involving the co-financing and co-management of funds).",9,False
9f62845,"The activities eligible for funding (max. Funds can also be used for market analysis, business planning, concept/strategy development. A total of four calls have been launched so far, with the number of applications growing each time. In 2010, a total of 284 pre-applications and 159 full applications were received, of which a total of 46 were approved and funded. In 2011,33 projects were approved.",9,False
436366f,"The composition of these groupings, specified in tables A, B and C, is intended to reflect basic economic country conditions. Several countries (in particular the economies in transition) have characteristics that could place them in more than one category, however, for purposes of analysis, the groupings have been made mutually exclusive. Within each broad category, some subgroups are defined based either on geographical location or on ad hoc criteria, such as the subgroup of “major developed economies”, which is based on the membership of the Group of Seven.",9,False
04822d3,"Innovative pricing schemes, such as dynamic discounting, are also helping to make the service more affordable for low-income groups. It is home to the countries with the lowest mobile-cellular price baskets worldwide: Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, where prices stand out at PPP$ 2.45 and PPP$ 4.14 per month. Globally, the price of a basic fixed-broadband connection fell from around USD 80 per month in 2008 to USD 25 in 2015, corresponding to a drop in the ratio of price to average GNI per capita from over 90 per cent to 14 per cent.",9,True
29bb5df,Information on the estimated percentage of the allocation dedicated to rural areas is included in each of the Specific Description of Priority Axes of each ROP. These amounts show the potential source of funding dedicated to rural areas within specific themes (Table 2.3). The national government has no compliance mechanism by which to ensure that these amounts are met. There are plans to introduce a monitoring tool for this process at the end of 2018.,9,False
1277588,"These advances allow companies to mine and exploit so-called ‘alternative data’. Such data include information on the location of consumers, frequency and type of phone calls, frequency of utility bill payments, social media presence, and various other items. Based on this information, financial technology companies build models that calculate the propensity of consumers to repay their financial obligations and that provide them with the appropriate financial facilities. Consequently, financial technology companies can provide access to finance and credit without relying on credit-scoring agencies, which do not operate in all markets.",9,False
3c79348,"This series continues that originally entitled OECD Trade Policy Working Papers. The opinions expressed and the arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.",9,False
2445189,"They thus create a dynamic whereby: i) recruitment is based on objective, non-discriminatory criteria, thus increasing the chances of recruiting the workers that are best suited for each job, and ii) future investments would be targeted to most efficient activities, regardless of the group undertaking them, thus making those investments more sustainable in the long run. Individuals suffering discrimination also suffer from lower incomes and poorer health status, stemming from higher psychological distress, lower self-esteem and related mental health problems (Choi et al., In turn, firms that discriminate narrow the pool of employees considered in recruitment processes, resulting in lower productivity and profits (Lanning, 2010). At the aggregate level, discrimination can lead to depressed wages and underemployment for a high share of the discriminated population (Baldwin and Johnson, 1996).",9,False
40a7924,"The contributing authors were Chris Bruegge, Kayoko Ido, Taylor Reynolds, Cristina Serra-Vallejo, Piotr Stryszowski and Rudolf Van Der Berg. The authors would particularly like to thank Dawit Bekele, Constance Bommelaer, Bill Graham and Michuki Mwangi from ISOC and Janis Karklins, Boyan Radoykov and Irmgarda Kasinskaite-Buddeberg from UNESCO for their work and guidance on the project. With the goal of “achieving more with less”, governments need to look at ways to make the most of limited resources.",9,False
3ab50d3,"Moreover, a prerequisite for workers to be able to use new technology and capital productively is that they have the appropriate skills and abilities that are required to do so. Key examples of policy areas that should be considered to foster productivity therefore also include not only improving the availability and quality of physical as well as information and communication infrastructure, but also expanding investment in education, with a particular focus on improving its quality and increasing the focus on science, technology and innovation. Policy attention is also increasingly being paid to technical and vocational education and training, which comprises formal, non-formal and informal learning for the world of work. Reassessing training and educational systems by taking into account such criteria as quantity, quality and relevance of teaching methods and teaching material would therefore be an important step in strengthening the innovation potential of the region.",9,True
9ec9834,"Industrial inclusiveness policies are implemented to address the problem of a dual economy (i.e. one divided into highly innovative/productive sectors and traditional/low productivity sectors) by improving the competitiveness of less innovative firms and foster the emergence of new activities by increasing the entrepreneurship of underrepresented groups. These new activities may address previously underserved needs. Territorial inclusiveness policies foster the development of more productive and innovative activities in lagging regions, offering better opportunities for people in those areas. They also increase the chances of other initiatives (e.g. investment in R&D and transport infrastructure) to have their intended effects on innovation performance and growth.",9,True
fec7c06,"Additionally, Afghanistan has problems involving corruption, security, technical skills, labour and infrastructure. Cultural barriers, which limit free movement of women in their daily lives, also affect their professional activities. I made it a priority to hire women, but many others would not work with a woman or company mostly made up of women.",9,True
f5fdecd,"In spite of these advances, however, there remain areas in which telecommunications access is sparsely distributed, and continued efforts are therefore needed to connect the poor in remote rural areas to national and global networks. Affordability is as important as connectivity in enabling the poor to gain from new technology (chapter II). In addition, to benefit fully from improved access, users need relevant content, the capabilities to make use of it, and the power and transport infrastructures that facilitate connectivity and stimulate wider economic activity.",9,True
a096102,The computational models we build can help us deepen our understanding infrastructure systems. This requires experts to make a series of reasonable assumptions to fill unanticipated 'specificity gaps'. Using such models or even the best Al algorithms should therefore always be tempered with human understanding and knowledge.,9,False
4333571,"Concerned with economic development, Mobilis is strengthening its partnership strategy with the local technology industry and is thereby participating fully in the emancipation of the national economy. This project is developed in partnership with Huawei Ericsson ZTE, and it relates to SDGs 1, 3, 5, 8 and 9, building resilient infrastructure, promoting sustainable industrialization and fostering innovation. San Luis 3.0 is the name of the state policy that defines actions to maximize San Luis' digitalization and prepares it for the effects of the fourth industrial revolution.",9,True
f39fe9f,"Tariff data cover 2005, 2008 and 2009, and are aggregated to the industry detail of the OECD ICIO model, weighting each 6-digit product by its share of bilateral trade in the corresponding industry as reported by the importer. Lastly, the data are aggregated at the country level by weighting with respect to intermediate imports when it comes to backward participation and exports to forward. The weighted average corresponds to a rough measure of the revenue from tariff expressed as a ratio of total trade of intermediates.",9,False
6b305b1,"Indeed, the cost of health impacts (e.g. diarrheal disease and cancer) is expected to be around 1.9% of rural GDP (World Bank, 2007b). Improving wood fuel efficiency or finding alternative sustainable fuels could reduce indoor smoke pollution and consequently mitigate health risks, reduce deforestation, and have positive spillovers on soil conservation, watershed management, irrigation agriculture and biodiversity conservation (World Bank, 2009b). Also, problems of droughts and desertification pose great environmental challenges in Tanzania, particularly the agricultural sector and rural communities. In general, Tanzania has experienced decreasing rainfall and increasing temperature.",9,False
563b891,"Online platforms are increasingly providing such services as logistics and finance (Chapter 2). In particular, export promotion agencies may want to create partnerships with logistics and/or financial service providers to offer a package of services to national exporters. These initiatives involve close colemploymentation between TIPOs and the private sector.",9,False
9479f7d,"This trend has negatively affected the low-income groups, particularly since the financial crisis. The main reasons for the decline in the redistributive capacity of taxes and transfers are the reduction in benefit generosity, the tightening of eligibility rules, and the failure of transfers to the lowest income group to keep pace with earnings growth (OECD, 2015e). In this context, public policies that foster inclusiveness without imposing long-term weight on public budgets, and that increase the chances of effectiveness of public funding become ever more relevant.",9,False
38cd4e9,"The digital divide between developed and developing countries remains wide in terms of access to broadband services and e-commerce platforms, quality of infrastructure and legal framework. On average, services firms are more intensive users of digital technology than manufacturing firms, while high-tech firms are more intensive users of industrial robots than services or low-tech firms. Despite these challenges, it is possible to illustrate the current state of the digital economy using available statistical and anecdotal evidence and to make inferences about its likely future direction. The US International Trade Commission (USITC) offers a similar estimate of US$ 27.7 trillion for global e-commerce in 2016, up 44 per cent from 2012.",9,True
20c0044,"New technologies make logistics and transport more efficient, consumers prefer higher degrees of customization, and e-commerce brings markets closer together, leading to a parcellization of trade (see Box C.4). Thus, infrastructure and geographical factors will remain important for digital intensive products that are still traded physically. The role of legal institutions that measure the ability of countries to enforce contracts will increase insofar as they interact with other policy fields.",9,True
bd3ce74,"Personal income taxes have had a relatively small impact on reducing inequality, but transfers from the central government to local governments produced a more equalising effect, albeit with mixed results in terms of satisfaction with public services. Social protection systems have also been extended, but important coverage gaps remain among the poor and ethnic minority groups, and informality remains a key challenge for universal extension. This has been backed by large investments in rural hard and soft infrastructure and a majority of government transfers dedicated to rural areas, leading to a decrease in the rural-urban income gap since 2011.",9,True
b9177a9,"In 2017, the estimated share of women using the Internet was 12% lower than the share of men. This gender digital divide is highest in Africa where 25% of men and only 19% of women were using the Internet in 2017. ( However, closing these digital divides require more than infrastructure investments (Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, 2018(18]).",9,True
b854eeb,"The top international vendors have risen to the challenge and are all pursuing technologies that can offer ever faster and cheaper fixed and wireless network solutions based upon Internet protocol (IP). High-speed, broadband fixed, 3G and now Long Term Evolution (LTE) networks (commonly known as ""fourth generation"" or ""4G"") have enabled the progressive development of increasingly ""smarter"" phones and terminals and a growing environment of applications and services. Research companies such as NPD3and IDC4 are reporting that some 50 per cent (around 900 million) of all mobile phones sold in 2013 have been smart phones.",9,True
42acd07,"Such expectations can have profound implications for the policy mix and governance arrangements. The greening of science, technology and innovation (STI) policies is particularly noticeable, as technology and innovation are increasingly seen as ways to mitigate climate change. In this context, broader and denser ties are being formed between public and private actors, beyond traditional intellectual property (IP) links and incubators, with a view to exploit more fully the potential synergies between the two sectors. Innovation policies now require a “whole-of-government” approach.",9,True
18c0e2e,"Consequently, the closure of the SHOK programme leaves a significant gap in Finland’s research and innovation policy. The profusion of small basic research centres over the past two decades appears to have had little effect on generating quality peaks and there is no centres of excellence instrument working around innovation. Bigger basic research centres and a revived competence centres programme appear to be necessities for tackling the quality “peaks”. For the most part, universities are not in a position to fund the early-stage commercialisation of research results, a capacity gap that is filled through Tekes’ commercialisation programme “New business from research ideas”.",9,True
3c72c15,"Valuing data and technology, forging innovative partnerships, taking risks and creating trust mean different things for different institutions. They will all need to be kept abreast of, and incorporate, change in order to provide relevant services to their members. This report focuses on the three types of TISIs, namely trade and investment promotion organizations (TIPOs), vocational education and training providers, and quality infrastructure.",9,True
ec2bd56,"Infrastructure provides the basic physical facilities essential to business and society, industrialization drives economic growth and job creation, thereby reducing income inequality, and innovation expands the technological capabilities of industrial sectors and leads to the development of new skills. However, inequalities in the value added in the manufacturing sector point to the steep challenges faced by the most disadvantaged countries, as well as their potential for growth. For example, in 2015, manufacturing value added (MVA) per capita was less than 100 US dollars a year in the least developed countries (LDCs) compared to 4,926 US dollars in developed regions.",9,True
01a5714,"Such services and related physical infrastructure occur at multiple scales and serve urban, industrial, agricultural and rural users, as well as involving ecological considerations (Global Water Partnership, 2009). They include dams and hydropower, water supply, wastewater, sanitation and water quality, storm water systems, irrigation and drainage, river and coastal works, pipelines and canals, and natural water infrastructure (Grigg, 2017). The particular nature of water as a basic human need, in combination with its amenability to being controlled and monopolized in different circumstances, makes public involvement in its provision both necessary and fraught.",9,True
bcd031d,"Transactions by the official sector with countries on the DAC List of ODA Recipients, which do not meet the conditions for eligibility as Official Development Assistance. The purpose codes are also commonly referred to as sector codes as they provide a classification of the sector of the activity. In total, there are 261 purpose codes with 207 mandatory and 54 new voluntary codes, which have recently been added to the CRS to more easily link development activities to developing country budgets. These activities are considered core STI activities as their ultimate aim are clearly focused on obtaining new knowledge through scientific studies in their respective sectors. All activities reported under these codes are considered as core support to the ICT sector.",9,True
ab3e21a,"The analysis in this paper is based on bilateral ODA and multilateral outflows. Taking the developing country angle makes more sense to assess the amount of resources available to countries towards the attainment of the SDGs. Instead of counting core funding to multilateral agencies, the analysis includes research activities performed by multilateral agencies based on the same criteria as for bilateral donors.",9,False
297d8d9,"While most countries have adopted broadband policies or strategies, more infrastructure investments are necessary to ensure reliable connections and universal access to ICTs. However, access to ICTs is not enough. Additional efforts are needed to strengthen domestic capacity, especially in digital literacy, higher education and other research institutions, to better exploit the full benefits of ICTs and set sustainable growth paths for the future. Access to new knowledge, innovation, and new technologies can catalyse efforts and contribute to faster achievement of many of the SDGs.",9,True
8bd633b,"Poor quality of infrastructure (for example, sub-standard transport connections or unreliable telecommunication grids) is an additional challenge developing and emerging countries face in the development of their manufacturing sector. According to the OECD (2018), early adoption of digital infrastructure such as a reliable telecommunication infrastructure (high-speed internet access) or more sophisticated technologies (for instance, the Blockchain), may lead to 'leapfrogging' within the manufacturing sector and thus promotes an inclusive and sustainable future development. The shrewd use of automation technology may have two substantial effects on the characteristics of the goods produced.",9,True
00e56c4,"Addressing discrimination is complex, as it is not simply related to the aforementioned “taste discrimination” theory that is to be addressed explicitly in education (Becker, 1957). Much discrimination relates more to “statistical discrimination”, i.e. contexts where stereotypes inform decisions because the other party (as e.g. an employer) does not have information on individuals and so judges an individual’s potential performance based on perceived characteristics of a group (Phelps, 1972, Arrow, 1973). This is more difficult to address, particularly if a group has already been at a disadvantage in engaging in certain activities.",9,False
ac3573e,"Unlike the Millennium Development Goals, the Sustainable Development Goals are universal and comprehensive goals that give equal importance to the economic, social and environmental pillars of sustainable development. Islands of prosperity surrounded by poverty, injustice, climate change and environmental degradation are viewed as neither sustainable nor acceptable. Bridging such a gap is a formidable task, especially in least developed countries (LDCs).",9,False
eac281e,"One wants an institution in which the developing countries have more voice than say the World Bank, and one wants an institution that is less committed to the neoclassical model (in which there is no unemployment) and more committed to development. The GTF could also compensate developing countries in the case of other trade violations (including for already existing rights) where it is determined existing enforcement mechanisms are inadequate, e.g. because the implementation of such sanctions would impose significant costs on the developing country. The gains in ‘equity’ from such targeted taxation have to be balanced against the resulting distortions, which given the proposed rates are likely to be very small.",10,True
018f304,"Commodity assets managed by financial investors have increased over the past decade from less than $10 billion to $404 billion in June 2012. Loose monetary policies of the developed world, most notably quantitative easing (QE) in the United States, along with the unwillingness of governments to regulate participants in commodity markets, have continued to draw excess funds to the commodities markets due to the markets’ comparatively high expected returns. The presence of financial investors, betting on an increase in fundamental prices due to supply shortages, serves to exaggerate price increases.",10,True
620d81b,"Nonetheless, South Africa’s changing population shares imply that a policy focus on race-based redistribution will become increasingly limited in the future as the foundation for further broad-based social development. Rather, it would seem that a more dynamically sustainable direction lies in addressing seriously the increasing inequality within each race group. However, before we proceed to this discussion of social spending, Chapter 2 interrogates and adds to the review of post-Apartheid inequality and poverty of this first chapter by comparing the empirical picture of poverty and inequality from three national household survey data sets from 1993, 2000 and 2008. Careful attention is given to making these data sets as consistent as possible.",10,True
a9811f0,"Intergenerational earnings mobility is low in countries with high inequality such as Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and much higher in the Nordic countries, where income is distributed more evenly (OECD, 2008). The resulting inequality of opportunity will inevitably impact economic performance as a whole, even if the relationship is not straightforward. Inequality also raises political challenges because it breeds social resentment and generates political instability. It can also fuel populist, protectionist, and anti-globalisation sentiments.",10,True
3100e4e,"Policy reforms enacted in the early and mid 1990s reduced income gaps at the bottom to below their 1978 value (as measured by the p50/p10 ratio, not reported here). But no equalising effects of policies could be discerned for the upper part of the distribution (p90/p50 ratio). For the period as a whole, tax policy changes appear to have slightly exacerbated trends towards widening income gaps at the top. The interpretation is that the tax system in the mid-2000s would have been somewhat more redistributive if policy makers had implemented no reform at all and had, instead, simply adjusted all monetary tax parameters in line with inflation.",10,True
a584be7,"The employment services for college graduates should be strengthened and the assistance system for college graduates from poor families should be improved. Enterprises are encouraged to keep more migrants. Those having financial difficulties can adopt flexible employment, elastic working times and on-the-job training to stabilise jobs.",10,True
448e51f,"Thus, while limited differentiation may mean that, in the immediate term at least, regional supply chains might need to be less differentiated than most Asian supply chains (or only part of the production chain can be located in this region), the prevalence of manufactured product in regional exports also means that some basic infrastructure for the production of manufactured goods already exists in South Asia. Countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan may be able to host, simultaneously, both labour-intensive assembly-type activities and more technically demanding intermediate activity across different supply chains, while India may be able to straddle all but the most technically demanding aspects of the production process. In short, it is unlikely that South Asia will replicate the ‘flying geese’ model in the classic sense, so famously attributed to East Asian industrial development.",10,False
4d4db85,"The measure of wage provided refers to hourly labour cost, or gross earnings, i.e. includes labour income taxes and social security contributions as well as fringe benefits. In particular, it accounts for bonuses and executive compensation. Wage premia are calculated as the average of the wage premium for each triplet consisting of one age bracket, one education level and the gender, weighted by the number of financial sector employees in the triplet. Hence, the aggregate measure uses the relative frequency of financial sector employees in the different triplet categories.",10,False
fbfbcea,"The fall has been generated by a combination of demand and supply factors. Global oil production in excess of worldwide consumption has been the primary driving force behind the decline, while weaker-than-expected growth in Europe and Asia has also been a contributing factor (Husain et al. Additionally, there has been a broad-based weakness in non-oil commodity prices.",10,False
674323c,"In other words, over the past two decades a megacity has been added every two years. Fifteen of 21 megacities are located in developing countries. Most losses were in Latin America and Africa, while there was some recovery in North America, Europe and parts of Asia. Biodiversity in the tropics is declining most dramatically, which is seen to be associated with high depletion rates of primary forests and transformation of forest into agriculture land and pasture (WWF 2010).",10,False
d280fd5,"Recent evidence of deteriorating health indicators in mental health and infectious diseases (Box 2.6) highlight the need for maintaining critical preventive public health services, which will tend to benefit more the low-income groups who are likely to be more prone to these diseases (Karanikolos et al., Widespread tax evasion, however, distorts its distributional effects and reduces its effectiveness in terms of tax collection (Chapter 1). Based on micro-simulation analysis, Leventi and Matsaganis (2013b) conclude that the extended income underreporting (at an average rate of 12.2% in 2009), incurred mainly among self-employment, increases inequality and makes the tax system considerably more regressive (by around 32% on the basis of the difference in the value of redistribution indices under tax evasion and full compliance).",10,True
0f382ff,"Telecommunications operators in Sudan have difficulties trying to expand their coverage into conflict-ridden areas. Drug trafficking, terrorism and illegal immigration affect Mauritania's national security. While in Yemen, there are ongoing conflicts in some regions between the government forces and local insurgents.",10,False
f146b4c,"Estimates by Sutherland et al. ( Firstly, given the relevance of quality teaching for schooling achievements (Hanushek and Wossman, 2007, Slater et al., Individual schools should be provided with tools and incentives to hire, reward and replace teachers according to their performance. Extending these practices to Local Authority maintained schools could also increase their competitiveness relative to independent schools, academies, faith schools and Free Schools.",10,False
e12e52a,"Unless reversed, the mega trends sketched above suggest migratory pressures should be expected to increase substantially moving forward. International migration is bringing benefits to both countries of origin and destination, including remittances, knowledge sharing and mitigation of labour shortages. It also comes with important costs to migrants themselves and the societies they live in, as migrants often face much less secure job situations, discrimination, and less than full access to health, education and other social services, while vast migration inflows has been a source of political and social tensions in many recipient countries.",10,True
482baf3,"At the same time, policy decisions tended to place a greater emphasis on achieving fiscal balance, and much less than in the past on other macroeconomic or development needs. The general tendency to reduce the role of the State in the economy meant that whenever budgetary adjustment was considered necessary, it was sought through spending cuts rather than by raising additional revenue. These institutions also emphasized the need to strengthen the financial position of the public sector and reduce government interference in the allocation of resources (TDR 2006, chap. It argues that more progressive taxation can help to reduce inequality in the distribution of income and wealth without curtailing incentives to undertake investment in fixed capital, innovation and skills acquisition.",10,True
b89acdf,"They believed it hindered social mobility, in that it prevented the rise of the most dynamic individuals in the society, and that it weakened economic incentives for an efficient use of labour, land and machinery.1 They also saw it as generating excessive consumption by the upper classes, contrasting with the precarious conditions of the popular masses. In their view, income inequality does not translate into stronger capital accumulation, as ostentatious consumption by the rich reduces savings. Consequently, State-led redistribution policies must seek to reduce consumption by the upper income groups in order to increase savings and direct them to capital accumulation (Prebisch, 1963, Pinto, 1970).",10,True
2fffa4a,"Since the financial crisis, this line of thinking has come under fire. Many now argue that stock options can promote short-term thinking among managers, who may try to boost the firm’s share price in the short run to make a quick killing, even if it hurts the firm’s long-term prospects. And these days, finance is not short of critics.",10,False
02e5b48,"It is scarcely less difficult or costly to train teachers, accountants or professionals with other lost skills. Yet much of this is qualitative and not measurable. In both Samoa and Tonga, science and mathematics teachers from secondary schools are the ones most often lost, partly through migration and partly from attrition, since sciences and mathematics teachers are most easily able to find better paid jobs within the public sector. In Tonga, the loss of industrial arts and technical and vocational education and training teachers is a particular problem.",10,False
c52d0c6,"Several farm subsidy programmes that were seen as WTO-illegal - such as the Countercyclical Payment Program and the Average Crop Revenue Program - have been either scrapped or modified. Conversely, the bill introduces five new crop subsidy programmes and replenishes four disaster programmes, set up in 2008 and only partially funded through to 2011, for the next five years. The programme is an area-based insurance product where payments are triggered whenever actual average revenues at the area level fall below 10 per cent of their expected levels.",10,False
be35035,"Global Development and Environment Institute Working Paper No. J. (2008), “The Unintended Consequences of Encouraging Work: Tax Incidence and the EITC”, CEPS Working Paper, No. The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance - Issues and Practice 34, pp. Tax Notes, Tax Policy Center, Urban and Brookings Institution, 2 May 2011.",10,False
e4fcb24,"But it’s far from clear whether typical workers reaped any benefits during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, many workers were clearly hurt.” Over just the past few decades, the number of people employed as telephone operators and shorthand typists has dwindled markedly. Other jobs will go in the future, including some “knowledge work” that today might seem to be immune to technology.",10,False
13f2d72,"In most cases, data for 2009 are expected to be released later during 2011 or early in 2012. Relative to 2007, benefit receipts under public assistance programmes have slightly decreased for households in the first quintile. This may reflect an increase in the share of the population in the first quintile receiving benefits from other public sources, such as the UI programme, as well as the financing of the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families through a Federal block grants to the states that are not adjusted for inflation nor changes in caseloads. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) included a temporary increase in EITC and expanded the credit for workers with three or more qualifying children.",10,True
a45d775,"If such easing is undertaken in an environment in which other structural barriers that hamper the returns to investment, such as energy shortages, are removed, the cheaper price of credit can spur the activities of the private sector. Reducing the cost of credit by expansionary monetary policy will not necessarily lead to increased inflation if it is ensured that credits are directed through regulatory measures to productive investments, especially to agriculture and not to speculative investments in assets. It becomes negative only beyond moderate rates of inflation, ranging from 13% to 17%.",10,False
a2f9f15,The Gini measures reported in Chapter 6 refer to working-age individuals and are somewhat different from the ones shown here which refer to individuals in working-age households and thus include children living in the same household as observations in their own right. In Switzerland the subsequent equalising effect on the distribution of disposable income was further strengthened by a trend towards more redistribution. Market-income inequality has also been the main determinant of differences across countries.,10,True
47b0845,"This entails re-organizing production to create a model that is structured and managed on the basis of the new technological platforms. This process needs to take account of scale economies related to the development of key skills and knowledge that require collective responses and configure new service networks for firms, such as testing and certification laboratories, specialized research and development centres or vocational and technical training firms. First, specific measures to support MSMEs must be coordinated with enabling policies, to create the basic conditions needed to compete in domestic and international markets.",10,False
b4c4fd3,"One advantage of the simulation is that it can hold “everything else” constant (unemployment levels, market-income inequality, household composition, etc.), For instance, it can show whether a given family at the bottom, middle and top of the income distribution is now better or worse off than they it have been with unchanged policies. By comparing the mechanical income effects of redistribution systems between different periods, it is possible to identify family and earnings situations that are better or worse off as a result of policy reforms. For simplicity, we refer to these families, respectively, as “gainers” and “losers”. Results are shown for the same 8 OECD countries that were included in the above summary of policy changes. For each family, changes in tax burdens and benefit entitlements do not only result from policy action, they can also occur if policies are not adjusted.",10,True
38305db,"However, notwithstanding the Bali success, in the absence of a significant change in the border policy environment a ‘business as usual’ approach is unlikely to yield results that are radically different from what WTO members have achieved so far. Mindful of this reality, several members are exploring new ways of conducting negotiations, as already hinted at by ministers at the December 2011 Ministerial Conference. Under this scenario, the single undertaking principle is likely to be further questioned and pushes for plurilateral approaches will probably intensify.",10,False
4071b27,"Unemployment assistance has been merged with social assistance in 2005. Initial eligibility conditions have also become more demanding in at least three countries, while none appear to have lowered the barriers to access the benefit system. Some countries raised benefit durations and ceilings - in two of them the rise in the first period was followed by a reduction in the second.",10,True
27166ab,"This was confirmed in the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992 and reaffirmed when the Lisbon Agenda was announced in 2000.3 For the EU, as well as for the OECD, social cohesion is something to strive towards, to be created via ‘modernised’ social policies, regional redistribution and new forms of governance involving both more active citizenship and mechanisms for identifying best practices. With the 2005 mid-term review and adjustment of the Lisbon Strategy the policy directions have been modified, but the overall goal remains. Social cohesion is a flagship concept which constantly reminds us of the need to be collectively attentive to, and aware of, any kind of discrimination, inequality, marginality or exclusion.",10,True
66451bc,"Two findings are interesting here. First, the migrants' earnings exhibit a more even distribution than do local workers' earnings. For instance, the Gini coefficients for urban local workers and migrant workers are 0.424 and 0.310, respectively. Second, when including migrants with urban residents, inequality in urban areas decreases: the Gini falls from 0.424 to 0.405, and more significantly, GE (-1) falls from 0.523 to 0.461.’",10,True
06a0b4f,"Such tentative scenarios are derived mechanically but are not inconsistent with country-specific reform experiences identified in Bouis et al. ( Empirical Evidence from a Panel of OECD countries”, OECD Economics Department Working Paper, No. Evidence from OECD Countries”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No.",10,False
325cd9d,"Any group of poor individuals harmed by a trade policy of another country should therefore have the right to bring a case before the WTO. There should exist an office (‘Defender of the Right to Trade’), potentially located within UNCTAD, that would have the right to bring suit against any country seen as violating the right to trade as defined above. They have recognised that opening up their markets to these countries would have little impact on their own economies (indeed, to the extent that trade restrictions are distortionary, benefiting producers at the expense of consumers, overall welfare would probably increase), but could be of enormous benefit to the least-developed countries.",10,True
c616942,"The PIAAC survey provides a measure of the numeracy and literacy skills. One obvious concern in the context of the present analysis is to what extent these measures actually reflect skills acquired while in education, given that skills are likely to depreciate with age, and might be complemented by those accumulated at work. These concerns are addressed both empirically and based on previous results suggesting that PIAAC skills largely reflect those accumulated while studying (see Annex 3 for a discussion).",10,False
6475c50,"Income Inequality has declined in many of the countries that experienced sustained economic growth, while increasing in countries with negative growth. In most countries whose per capita income/consumption grew during this period, growth was faster for the bottom 40 per cent of the population. Others have a more complex decision-making mechanism in place.",10,True
9611861,"This process has gained momentum in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and countries of East Asia, where policies are being designed to incorporate and spread the use of these instruments. Relative productivity is defined as the labour productivity of a country or region with respect to a benchmark country on the technological frontier. This indicator is a proxy for the behaviour of the gap in technology capacity.",10,False
85d3309,"Indeed, despite a slowing of the trend towards greater market-income disparities, income inequality after adding benefits and taxes has increased at faster rate since the mid-90s than it had in the decade before. Benefits have a much stronger impact on inequality than social contributions or taxes, despite the bigger aggregate size of direct taxes and, hence, their bigger average impact on household incomes. In general, changes on the benefit side can therefore be expected to be a more significant driver of the extent of overall redistribution and inequality. On average across 29 OECD countries, cash support for working-age individuals and their families has grown in real terms but has accounted for a declining share of total social spending (the share fell from 27% in 1985 to 25% in 1995 and 21% in 2005).",10,True
1d8ec75,"Second, technological progress shifted production technologies in both industries and services in favour of skilled labour. In that time, trade integration - the sum of imports and exports as a share of GDP - doubled in many OECD countries. But globalisation is not only about trade in goods and services.",10,False
aecf5d1,"The surges in consumption in recent years, as examined in chapter IV, could easily be erased by a reversal of the business cycle, threatening access to basic consumer staples for this broad swathe of the population. The most evident of these features is that the poverty rate for children is considerably higher than for the rest of the population. Poverty rates among children aged 15 and under are between 1.1 and 2.0 times greater than for the general population, with the largest discrepancies seen in countries with lowest overall poverty rates. With a number of exceptions, in many countries poverty and age tend to be inversely correlated.",10,True
00d6ced,"However, this standard was not always applied in the previous updates. Correcting this lack of harmonisation has led to several revisions of scores in many countries. Third, whenever employers can avoid enforcement of reinstatement orders by simply paying compensation or can choose between compensation and reinstatement, a score equal to 0 is normally attributed to the indicator measuring the extent of reinstatement. Specific methodological features of the 2013 update round and the revision of published indicators (cont.) Published” refers to scores as published in Venn (2009). The summary indicator is obtained as a weighted average of EPRC and EPT, with weights 7/12 and 5/12.The data refer to 2009 in the case of France and Portugal.",10,False
b9eb39a,"Capital and financial market liberalisation and banking deregulation often led to an increase in instability, with adverse effects on inequality and growth (see Stiglitz 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012). And trade ministers, especially from the developed countries, were ill-prepared to analyse the implications of alternative proposals for development. Under GATT, developing countries were somewhat protected by the commitment towards Special and Differential Treatment.",10,True
35a32c4,"In addition, maximum wind speeds from tropical cyclones are likely to increase, though not in every watershed. All in all, the increase in exposure to these events will result in greater direct economic losses (IPCC, 2013). Extreme waves are becoming more common and will shape the design of maritime infrastructure works in the region, since failing to consider long-term change factors would reduce the viability of such works to about 60% of their current level by 2070. The impacts and adaptation processes will undoubtedly be of significant magnitude, and will increase over the course of the century across many areas of economic activity such as the agriculture sector, the water sector, land use changes, biodiversity, tourism, infrastructure and the health of the population.",10,False
3c55c1e,"Tourism is the second-largest source of hard currency earnings, following remittances. The tourism sector has potential but is weakly developed, cruise ship numbers have recently declined and tourism numbers are presently declining. In 2011 GDP was estimated at $378 million with GDP per capita estimated at $3,648. Real GDP growth fell in both 2008-09 and 2009-2010 but for 2010-11 was expected to grow at around 1.4 per cent.",10,False
e1b3380,"The development of new technological options that promote low carbon intensity, as well as the economic costs of mitigation processes, will certainly be significant in areas such as energy, transportation and forest conservation, which will modify the current patterns of economic development (Galindo, 2009). Although these actions can have marginal mitigation effects at the global scale, they are important for ensuring environmentally sustainable development in the region. Building a culture of risk prevention and developing a large-scale climate change adaptation strategy are essential steps. Of its 550 million people, 77% live in cities of more than 2,000 inhabitants, a rate that approaches 90% in the Southern Cone and is forecast to rise across the region to 85% by 2030. Cities with more than 20,000 inhabitants alone are home to two thirds of the region's population, the highest rate in the world (ECLAC, 2012d). The system of cities in Latin America is highly varied in terms of size and conformation, but in general, the countries tend to have several megalopolises alongside strong urbanization and growing importance for medium-sized cities.",10,False
1f054b8,"Conversely, the maximum duration of successive contracts is very short in Chile and France, while no substantial limits are found in about one-third of OECD countries37 as well as in India and South Africa (see Figure 2.7). In Belgium, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Saudi Arabia, there is no limitation for the first contract, but cumulative time limits step in when a renewal occur, or a new contract between the same employer and employee is signed. In this case, workers are hired by an agency and temporarily assigned for work into a user firm, typically to perform temporary tasks outside the “core” business of the user firm or to enable it to cope with short-term increases in workload.",10,False
9d0271c,"Trade liberalisation (the removal of barriers to cross-border trade) has historically been negotiated at the World Trade Organization (WTO), trade agreements negotiated there translate into impacts within countries and therefore have significant implications for household wellbeing and gender equality1. There is now considerable empirical evidence that international trade agreements have a differential impact on women and men at household, firm and national levels (Randriamaro, 2006, Carr and Williams, 2010, World Bank, 2012, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 2012), creating disparities in how the opportunities and challenges of globalisation are experienced. Yet, there have been only limited attempts over the decades during which global trade negotiations have been taking place to mainstream2, or integrate, gender concerns into trade policy and negotiations. Our research confirms that the first hurdle, that of holding the position of ambassador or head of mission (HoM)3, shapes progression on to the decision-making and accountable committees and councils of the WTO.",10,True
b2a05fe,"Strong household income growth in the Nordics has lifted incomes from the bottom to the top of the distribution from the mid-1990s to 2014 (Figure 3). This contrast with developments in Germany and the United States, were stagnating incomes at the bottom of the income distribution imply that material living standards have improved very little relative to the mid-1990s. National sources report an increase around four Gini points from 1990 to 2014 (Statistics Norway), but the applied household income definition is not fully comparable with the one used for OECD figures (see Causa et al.",10,True
e2dd451,"Bonuses can be viewed as a form of remuneration through which firms improve incentives while transferring some of their profitability risks to employees. However, they are frequently tied to short-term performance without claw-back provisions and may therefore come at the expense of firm-level stability with particularly damaging consequences in the case of systemically-important financial institutions. Data for Germany relate to 2006.",10,False
071af26,"This may free up resources that could be used to help those with insufficient savings. These systems have an essential role to play in addressing persistent poverty, protecting households against income and health-related risks and tackling income inequality. It revealed that having social protection systems in place before a crisis strengthens the effectiveness of social policy responses to changing needs. The first is to ensure that social protection systems provide adequate support to those who need it in a context of limited fiscal resources and weak administration and a high rate of informal work that leaves large parts of the workforce uncovered by the main instruments of social policy.",10,True
893b3a9,"There is growing consensus that assessments of economic performance should not focus solely on overall income growth, but also take into account income distribution. Some see poverty as the relevant concern while others are concerned with income inequality more generally. A key question is whether the type of growth-enhancing policy reforms advocated for each OECD country and the BRIICS in Going for Growth might have positive or negative side effects on income inequality.",10,True
492d612,"The union movement in Chile was persecuted during the military dictatorship and never regained its influence after the return to democracy in 1990: unionisation levels are currently below 10% (Solimano, 2011). It is recognition of that fact that is behind the current attempts to establish a working collective bargaining process in China and tripartite committees for social dialogue in Korea. Moreover, the mounting body of evidence from labour institutions has generally toned down the view (based on perfectly competitive labour market models) that labour regulations were the source of many woes, from informality to rigidity.",10,False
75b9e67,"Where this has not been the case in the past, systems have languished because data providers lose enthusiasm and reports have either not been produced in a timely manner or have lacked complete data from which sensible conclusions can be drawn. The Commonwealth, in close collaboration with the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, could implement this recommendation. This is an area where the Commonwealth could be involved and share the experiences of regionalism from the Caribbean and Africa.",10,False
b804594,"In addition, international actors have been criticised for permitting a ""blame culture"" in which risks were unfairly distributed along the partnership chain, with front-line responders exposed to the most significant risk. The RMU was established in 2011 to help UN agencies to better assess and understand risk. It is funded by Denmark, DFID and the Common Humanitarian Fund for Somalia. The RMU carries out risk assessments and monitoring, conducts due diligence on implementing partners, and manages a database of risk-related evidence on UN implementing partners.",10,False
870fe7b,"Decomposing wage developments of earners between the 90th (top) and the 10th (bottom) percentiles allows a comparison of the ratio of wages at the 90th percentile with that of the 50th percentile (the 90-50 ratio) and the ratio of wages at the 50th percentile with that of the 10th percentile (the 50-10 ratio). Data points for members of the EU are ordered by changes in the share of highest-paying occupations. By contrast, the 50-10 ratio has remained fairly stable at a level of about 15 per cent above its level of the early 1970s. More detailed evidence indicates that the gap between the 10th percentile and the median has substantially contracted over the past few years (Acemoglu and Autor, 2012: 13).",10,True
39d0033,"These can facilitate labour management, but do not guarantee the skills or productivity required for the job. In the absence of formal institutions, informal institutions are considered an important mechanism of risk management. In the long term, as businesses grow and attract new investments, formal institutions will need to be strengthened to increase confidence in court systems and legal arrangements.",10,False
4c19eb7,"At the time of writing there were only five qualified plumbers in Tonga, not only is it hard to get access to them but they have no time to be tutors in plumbing at the Tonga Institute of Science and Technology. Here too, migration and attrition are combined. In Samoa, 52 teachers left the service in three and a half years between 2000 and 2005, eroding the quality of curriculum delivery (Afamasaga 2006). Tonga was losing teachers at a similar rate.",10,False
f383fbc,"Background paper for World Economic and Social Survey 2008. Evolving structure of world agricultural trade and requirements for new world trade rules. Paper presented at the FAO Expert Meeting on How to Feed the World in 2050, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 24-26 June 2009. Sharma, Krishnan, Arun Kashyap, Manuel Montes, and Paul Ladd (2011).",10,False
fa963e9,"On this front, many of the region's countries have made real efforts to conserve their natural wealth by establishing protected areas, especially under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Important regional efforts and experiences in this regard include the creation of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, in which Mexico and seven Central American countries participate, the expansion of the Serranfa del Chiribiquete natural park in Colombia and that country's policy of conservation in the Amazon region, as well as the tropical rainforest conservation programme in Brazil, which has spurred a strong expansion in protected areas in the region and has become the driving force in reducing deforestation in the Amazon region. One example was the domestication of plants of tremendous economic value that were grown in species-rich areas inhabited by sophisticated ancient civilizations. This process was key in the development of agriculture and gave rise to hubs of origin of major crops such as maize, yucca, potatoes, peanuts, beans, squash, tomatoes, cacao, quinoa and others.",10,False
cf32980,"Overall, these findings signal synergies across policy objectives, i.e. that reforms aimed at encouraging exports among domestic firms could boost efficiency and equity. This finding could reflect FDI-induced demand for unskilled labour and associated employment creation, and it would suggest that policy reforms aimed at easing barriers to entry for foreign firms could serve both the efficiency and equity objectives. By contrast, there is some evidence of negative effects on household incomes of the lower-middle class and the poor.",10,True
b1507a1,"The IMF metal price index also fell by 10.2 per cent in 2013-14 and by another 23.1 per cent between 2014 and 2015 (Figure 1.5). The IMF’s energy index saw the sharpest decline between 2014 and 2015, at 44.9 per cent (Figure 1.5). The continued decline in commodity prices indicates an end to the commodity supercycle that commenced in the early 2000s. The oil price fall is expected to yield a windfall for the majority of Commonwealth small states, which are net importers of oil, although in general the pass-through to retail prices has been relatively limited thus far, reflecting short-term price rigidities and exchange rate fluctuations.",10,False
8aa4a29,"The levels of inequality in some emerging-economy countries of the region are also approaching that of Latin American countries. However, a transition towards more proactive fiscal policies to adjust income distribution and an enhanced role of progressive direct taxes in particular, as observed in Latin America, has yet to happen. For the more advanced developing countries of the region, the progress achieved in Latin American countries since the 2000s is not beyond reach. In 2015 total tax revenue averaged 16.4 per cent of GDP in the region, compared to developing country average of 20.2 per cent and developed country average of 25.1 per cent.110 This regional average conceals the vast differences between countries.",10,True
e0d0763,"Jobs and income growth of top earners and the causes of changing income inequality: Evidence from U.S. tax return data. Working paper, Williams College, William-stown, MA. Cash transfers for older people reduce poverty and inequality. In: Bebbington AJ, Dani AA, De Haan A, and Walton M, eds. Institutional Pathways to Equity: Addressing Inequality Traps.",10,True
79b313b,The slower gross domestic product (GDP) growth was due to lower than expected exports and a decrease in public expenditure and foreign direct investment. A reduced influx of hard currency assisted the devaluation of the metical (MZN) against the US dollar and pressured the balance of payments. This was halted only by a USD 282.9 million standby credit facility agreement with the International Monetary Fund in December 2015. The budget deficit was reduced from 6.6% in 2014 to 5.4% in 2015.,11,False
5cf697b,"Direct investment, portfolio and other investment flows have propped up the balances of countries with current account deficits. Fiscal policy direction will be mixed in the near term. The stability in the fiscal positions of the region’s economies has remained intact at the close of recent fiscal years.",11,False
604c77c,"In an overview supporting the implementation of the Norwegian value creation programme, the consultant outlined a few circumstances that could contribute to better utilization of the economic potentiaI of cultural heritage. Firstly, cultural heritage could provide a competitive advantage of the tourism and travel industry, if the marketing is focused on segments (i.e. groups of people) that are willing to pay more than average for their services. Secondly, there are several benefits of networking between individual companies, a single cultural site may not be sufficient to attract visitors, but as a part of a network of cultural sites, it may become more interesting. Investments in infrastructure and marketing require resources, and by joining forces more cost-effective solutions could be found.",11,False
a215a8c,"The probability that recurrent emergencies will persist is high, even with well-planned and executed strategies. However, over time and with dedicated attention and often incremental action, complex disaster risks can be managed and reduced. Coordinated, collaborative action allows for organizations to play to their strengths and not extend beyond their own institutional capacity while also creating synergies and positive exchanges among actors.",11,False
d89aec7,"The fiscal stance remains viable, with a manageable overall balance deficit equal to 2.9% of GDP (3.7% in 2014). By the end of 2015, official foreign-exchange reserves had remained comfortable at an estimated US dollar (USD) 809 million, or 6.8% of non-extractive imports (5.5 months of imports), against USD 639.1 million in 2014, or 4.7 months of imports. The tertiary sector’s share of GDP continued growing to reach 44.8%, its highest ever.",11,False
53baa3d,"The city can experiment with new technologies at the new landfill site planned at Gia Minh solid waste treatment complex in Thuy Nguyen district, which is 15 kilometres away from the centre and a part of the project on rain and wastewater drainage and solid waste management. Such efforts can directly improve the economic competitiveness of SMEs. Community-based action has played a key role in reducing the city’s domestic waste by setting up targets and various pilot projects that empowered identifiable groups in waste collection and sorting for recycling. For example, in Cebu, small and medium-scale businesses have identified waste treatment and recycling as a business and located a market for their end products.",11,True
4b00de4,"A major change at the municipal (and provincial) level is the adoption of one plan for the entire territory that will incorporate all applicable zoning regulations and pertinent administrative laws. All existing zoning plans will be transferred to the environmental plan and local governments will have a period of ten years to transform them. It is anticipated that some areas will have a high degree of protection, such as heritage sites, while others will have far fewer rules and constraints and be more open to experimental uses and spaces.",11,True
99d4c70,Understanding why risks are higher or lower is a basis to attach priorities to problems. The title clearly reflects Korea’s ambition to reduce the number of road deaths. This means there is a target. Deciding on a realistic and ambitious timeframe within which this halving should be realized is a key component of target setting. Experiences in other countries teach us that a halving within 10 years is possible but may also be ambitious. Halving the deaths with a 30 year target cannot be considered ambitious.,11,True
c74f87f,"Forcibly displaced persons comprise refugees, asylum seekers, persons in refugee-like situations and internally displaced persons. The Convention relating to the Status of Refugees defines a refugee as someone with a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons related to race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, who resides outside their country of nationality and who is unable to return to it. In Africa, persons fleeing armed conflict and violence are also considered refugees (see box 3).",11,False
e311770,"Falling yields (except at the very short end) and a flattening yield curve can be observed in the euro area as well. However, while the euro has been generally stable against the currencies of major trading partners, the US dollar has strengthened. Meanwhile, the equity market volatility index, which has ebbed since the start of 2019, is picking up again somewhat following the new tariff measures introduced by the United States and China in May 2019. Capital markets in Emerging Asia - Stable but headwinds persist10 (cont.)",11,False
2d9c4a1,"With shorter journeys, they are more likely to walk. However, women have more complex journey patterns and are at a disadvantage when living in peripheral urban areas because of the poor frequency of public transport. People with disabilities suffer a wide range of issues when travelling, including obstructed and dangerous sidewalks.",11,True
f7bc738,"Occupational health and safety controls that include the vehicle as part of the workplace and systems of controls for organisations that use the road network to transport people and goods are also important contributors. Criminal justice systems are designed to deter and punish behaviours that transgress society’s norms and values as reflected in the laws to a considerable and conspicuous extent. It is not intended to respond to less than perfect behavioural transgressions to which the majority, if not all of citizenry are prone. Many of the behavioural shortcomings contributing to road trauma are of the “less than perfect” type of error and misjudgement, wandering attention of human beings.",11,False
fb36780,"For instance, the purpose of the Digital Readiness Framework is to improve citizens’ quality of life. The framework documents also repeatedly identify improving digital and physical infrastructure and cybersecurity while ensuring privacy of data as key focus areas. Regarding institutional organisation, the Digital Government Blueprint describes co-ordination measures between ministries, notably through increased sharing and alignment of data between ministries as well as the appointment of Chief Digital Strategy Officers and Chief Information Officers to lead and implement digitalisation plans within their ministries and respective agencies.",11,False
d77bafc,"Flexible working hours, high staff turnover, a share of low-skilled workers and the need for functional versatility are characteristics of the tourism labour market in Portugal. The study proposed four key values to guide the human resources development agenda: service culture, market orientation, ICT and professionalism. The importance of soft skills is particularly underlined, as is the need to build capacity in tourism SMEs, by developing a training strategy for entrepreneurs and managers.",11,False
94b166a,"Over 1.6 million people have been displaced internally while over 616 000 people have fled to neighbouring states. Severe food insecurity is expected to affect 4.6 million people this year, compared to 3.8 million last year, at the height of the lean season. The incidence of poverty has worsened from 44.7% in 2011 to more than 57% in 2015.",11,False
de23485,"One of the most prominent risks is the trade tension between the United States and China. The rising trade tensions may affect Emerging Asia through various channels. Import growth from ASEAN showed signs of improving in March 2019, but prospects are uncertain. While new tariff measures were announced in May 2019, the resumption of trade talks during the G20 summit sends a positive signal. The downturn in China’s imports since late 2018 has affected ASEAN to varying degrees.",11,False
7a8983a,"In 2015, Sudan was removed from the “black list” of the Financial Action Task Force, an international financial-fraud monitoring body located at the OECD. However, the continued difficulties of processing international banking transactions may fuel informal transfers, contribute to exchange-rate distortion, and reduce fiscal revenues. In urban areas, job creation is above average and the poverty rate is less than half of the national average.",11,False
425f7c2,"Next, debt should be exclusively used to finance capital projects with a long life, and not to cover budget gaps for current expenditure. The third critical aspect would be to impose a hard budget constraint on borrowers, to eliminate the possibility of a costly bailout by higher levels of government. A central-government-mandated borrowing framework would need clear rules about who can borrow, how much, for what purpose, from whom, with what instruments and with what restrictions.",11,False
a38312c,"The targets are designed to be integrated and indivisible and to balance the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda further seeks to realize the human rights of all, and to achieve gender equality and empowerment of all women and girls. Unlike the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is an ambitious agenda that is indivisible and supposed to be implemented universally by all countries in a collaborative partnership. The theme of each HLPF, and a subset of goals to be reviewed, is agreed in advance.",11,False
922499e,"What will be the consequences? Life expectancy, incomes, literacy, and access of girls to education have changed remarkably. However, beneath this global perspective lie significant and compelling regional differences, with tremendous economic growth in East Asia while Africa features dangerously low incomes and poor health conditions. The outbreak of Ebola fever and the need for a broad-based response has highlighted the great risks that deprivation can bring on local, national and worldwide scales.",11,False
71d816c,"While such metrics would not replace indicators based on casualty numbers, they could alleviate some difficulties associated with the comparability and statistical power of casualty figures. This is essential given the proven relationships between speed and crash risk {ITF, 2018b) and the contribution that speeding plays in making people feel unsafe on the streets. Technology could play a role and support such analysis.",11,True
addc644,"To boost Kaznex Invest’s effectiveness in attracting investors to the key strategic sectors, the government of Kazakhstan requested a review of Kaznex Invest operations from the OECD and a benchmarking in relation to best practices in other agencies, with a view to making adjustments in its mandate, structure, or operations (OECD, 2015d). Investment Promotion Agency of Kazakhstan: how well is it doing? ( Only 5% of total FDI inflows were estimated to have been directly generated by Kaznex Invest in 2013, as compared to 11% in Nicaragua or 33% in Czech Republic. Reasons for this relatively poor performance included, the relatively large mandate of the institution, which resulted in lesser attention given to investment promotion and facilitation, its focus on serving the needs of the ministry rather than of investors, and a lack of clear strategy', well-identified priority sectors and key performance indicators that were outcome- rather than process-oriented and in line with the pre-identified strategy .",11,False
23d9d25,"This principle, however, could be stated clearly in all strategic government documents. In pursuing equal opportunities in government, Kazakhstan might adopt the 2015 “OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Public Life” to mainstream gender equality in the design, development, implementation and evaluation of relevant public policies and budget (OECD, 2016f). The Ministry of the Civil Service and its counterparts in subnational levels need to be staffed with experts.",11,False
6244340,"Pay levels make it difficult to attract and retain skilled and highly qualified staff, as civil servants (i.e. urban planners) in key cities such as Almaty are paid USD 300 per month, compared to USD 600-800 in the private sector. Kazakhstan requires a clear competence management framework to ensure the skills, knowledge and behaviour that result in good performance at individual and organisational level. Competences should be linked to different elements of human resource management (HRM), in the recruitment and selection of staff, training and development, and succession or career planning. Several models are used in OECD countries, but Kazakhstan may wish to review the French model, known as Employment, Workforce and Competency Planning (Gestion previsionnelle des emplois, des effectifs et des competences or GPEEC), as it shows how recruitment methods may incorporate competences without abandoning the established principle of selection through competitive examination.",11,False
da2b87e,"The IMF’s rapid financing instrument (RFI)'. Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). Voluntary Guidelines for the Pacific Islands Region, available at: http://www.pacificdisaster.net/dox/ FRDP_2016_Resilient_Dev_pacific.pdf (accessed 29 September 2017). United States Department of State (2017), Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs: Investment Climate Statements for 2017 - Dominica, available at: https://www.state.g0v/e/eb/rls/0thr/ics/ investmentclimatestatements/index.htm?dlid =270062&year=2017#wrapper (accessed 29 September 2017).",11,False
0345e8c,"While the growth trends are somewhat comparable for certain commodities, the speed of adjustment between commodities and markets differs (Figure 1). These dynamics are presumably determined by the macroeconomic structure, extent of global value chain involvement of each sector in the economy, free trade agreements and investment linkages, among other factors. Commodity nomenclatures are not necessarily the same across countries. In this regard, concerns mainly revolve around the movement of the Chinese yuan.",11,False
f6f4186,"In 2014, Gangwon-do and Jeju-do's GDP per capita were lower than the national average as well as the average OECD rural region. Four out of five predominantly rural regions had faster GDP per capita growth than the national average in 2000-2014 (Figure 1.9). The highest growth rate occurred in Chungcheongnam-do, where the GDP per capita grew by 6.2%.",11,False
2d2ebf6,"In Myanmar, however, the persistent weakness of the kyat has fuelled a rise in domestic prices, and in China, supply-side pressures have pushed food prices upwards. Thailand raised interest rates as a precautionary measure against risks in the real estate market, while China, India, Malaysia and the Philippines have eased monetary controls to a certain degree. Nevertheless, the overall balance-of-payments positions have remained in good stead.",11,False
68794b1,"Agricultural production for processed and formally marketed food is highly concentrated. A secure institutional framework is critical to keep transaction costs low, lower barriers to entry, and provide certainty on the ties between farmers and agri-businesses (Sautier et al., Housing is a major source of wealth creation and savings, with investments accounting for 6 per cent of GDP, and for each house built, five jobs can be created (World Bank, 2015).",11,False
dacb86e,"However, taking advantage of these new data sources needs investments in staff training and in systems for integrating geospatial, and earth observation data and ensuring interoperability. Advances in technology or technical human capabilities will only deliver their potential as part of integrated systems that align the flow of information with the shifting needs and demands of users. There can also be measures at the regional level.",11,False
80441c0,"They provide help through medical examinations and counselling, emergency treatment in case of acute illness, referral to specialized physicians if necessary, care during pregnancy and delivery, and referral to services for social and legal counselling. Anonymity is assured to all beneficiaries, who often fear to seek help from an ordinary doctor's practice or hospital. Both health professionals and administrative staff work voluntarily, without any remuneration.",11,False
97bd6a8,"Thanks to a massive scale-up in humanitarian assistance, famine was averted, but it remains a looming risk in the future. Large parts of the drought-affected rural areas in southern and central Somalia were controlled by al Shabaab and were inaccessible to the government and most humanitarian organizations and international actors. To assess drought impacts under these circumstances and guarantee the personal security of staff, humanitarian actors relied on remote assessment methods that combined remote-sensing technologies and social media analytics.",11,False
8c8cdca,"Nonetheless, export data by commodity and partner country yield some notable findings. As can be gleaned from Figure 1.12, exports of certain goods to China from Thailand and Viet Nam exhibit somewhat comparable trends over the year through April-May 2019. Commodity nomenclatures are not necessarily the same across countries.",11,False
146e7d9,"Thus, direct hierarchical involvement in investment projects is not how vertical co-ordination issues are typically dealt with in Sweden. Instead, the different levels of government together with central government agencies and all other relevant actors engage in continuous dialogue. The OECD Review recommended that it could be fruitful to better link dialogue with the evidence obtained from the indicator system and case-specific impact evaluations, as a means to make a stronger case for co-financing arrangements.",11,False
6ddd991,"The stock of public debt rose from just below 70% of GDP at end-2010 to 108% by end-2015. Consequently, interest payments on public sector debt increased to absorb 40% of government revenues in 2015, up from 25% in 2013. The outlook for 2016 is clouded by policy slippages related to financing another large programmed deficit of 9.3% of GDP. Associated with the fiscal deficit, Gambia experienced a significant balance of payments crisis, which led to a decrease in its official reserves from six months of import cover at end-2012 to less than three months in early 2016.",11,False
5c74f7a,"There are opportunities to further raise own revenue, in particular tariffs and user charges. Attracting private investment should also be emphasised: FDI inflows have been lower in the Philippines than in other countries of the Southeast Asian region, in particular because of the strong restrictiveness imposed by the central government. Opportunities also lie in Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) which are currently encouraged at the subnational level through the PPP Centre of NEDA, however, the impact of such initiative is not yet visible in Cebu.",11,False
ebba1cb,"Some OECD governments go further, seeking to direct growth to particular regions (e.g. outside a capital city) or to particular areas within a city (e.g. inner-city development). Korea, for instance, has attempted to address regional disparities by directing growth to less-developed regions and alleviating agglomeration pressures on major population and industrial centres. While most often implemented by lower levels of government, these tools often require legitimation through national legislation, and may be motivated by national strategies for sustainable urban development. They can include the public acquisition of land, regulation (e.g. zoning provisions, development moratoria, urban growth boundaries, green belts) and fiscal policies (e.g. development impact fees, infill or redevelopment incentives).",11,True
5507a0f,"Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) play a role in creating smart, sustainable and resilient cities and overcoming financing constraints. However, it is important that such partnerships are designed in a way that they are not a source of risk to public finances and that affordability and inclusiveness considerations are duly taken into account. While the value for money concept remains important, with the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, the challenge is to implement PPPs according to a broader set of holistic criteria and undertake projects that from inception to termination create 'value for people'. The action plan for implementation of a National Disaster Risk Management Programme for period 2017-2020 was adopted by the Government in March 2017. The plan was coordinated by the Public Investment Management Office -with participation of all line ministries, special organizations, local self-governments, non-governmental organizations, and other stakeholders in the country. Along with the action plan, a Disaster Risk Financing Programme has also been adopted.",11,True
6846f66,"In this period, the absolute number of people living in Africa’s slums increased by 14.8 million to about 212 million people (figure 3.5). The proliferation of slums in African cities is the most significant manifestation of rapid and unplanned urbanization outpacing demand for services. Living conditions in the urban slums and informal settlements are particularly dire.",11,True
e624c62,"However, developing policy measures will be necessary to ensure that inclusive development is being pursued. Since NAFTA, the state of Morelos lost its absolute advantage of proximity to major markets and is now struggling to keep its position. The case study of Nissan is detailed below for illustrating the complexity and implications of accessibility and connectivity policies in relation to Morelos and regional economic growth. Together with other auto plants established in the state of Mexico and Puebla, the Nissan plant was built in the Cl VAC industrial park and operated from there until the 1980s with a relatively high degree of national integration in the supply of inputs.",11,False
872e4bb,"All the Sendai Framework's targets are critical for the achievement of the SDGs, whose progress in turn is key to building and strengthening resilience against disasters. Local leaders showed strong leadership and commitment under the Global Action Agenda and this links well with the global goals of SDGs and NUA targets. The SDGs offer many opportunities to develop mitigation and adaptation strategies to address climate change especially through environmentally sustainable and resilient urban development.",11,True
f3f4b9f,"In Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, Albania and Romania stand out with half of the housing lacking piped water. As in the case of water supply, sewerage services are most problematic in Albania, Romania and the EECCA countries. The data indicate that a limited share of the housing has a bath or shower—Uzbekistan (13.3 per cent), Bosnia and Herzegovina (22 per cent), Kyrgyzstan (24 per cent) and the Republic of Moldova and Turkmenistan (30 per cent).",11,True
e6083fd,"Slum dwellers are a heterogeneous population, and not only the very poor live in slum communities (UN-Habitat, 2003). Even though slum areas can differ substantially cross-nationally in size and other characteristics, extreme housing deprivation is a common trait. The numbers are relatively less dramatic in Brazil: 3.3% of people in Brazilian favelas lack access to tap water and 12.3% lack an indoor flushing latrine in their homes (IBGE, 2010).",11,True
b741627,"Therefore, for most migrants, moving to a city is a sound decision that is likely to benefit their well-being and strengthen their resilience to adversity. Migrants are often faced with legal, cultural and social barriers and obstacles to accessing formal housing, employment, education, health and other social services. These barriers may force them to live in conditions of exclusion, segregation and vulnerability. Migrant women, for instance, are more likely to work in low-paid, irregular, and potentially exploitive jobs, often in the informal sector.",11,True
1b194ec,"Furthermore, taxation of residential, rental and social rental housing is excluded from this analysis because of limitations in the reported data.9 Overall, more work is needed to improve coverage and validate the quality of the data. The next sections provide more information on these policy instruments, on their coherence with social policy objectives and on the amount of resources invested in them. Owner-occupied housing is the dominant tenure across OECD countries (see Figure 1) and it received public support in all of the countries surveyed in OECD QuASH. The collected data show that multiple policy instruments are typically used to this end and generally include both demand-side and supply-side subsidies.",11,False
d821431,"The Thai government and international partners have provided assistance to train and share knowledge with local governments, but their capacity could be further developed, including results-based monitoring and evaluation systems. The BMA has developed key performance indicators (KPIs), but no such mechanism exists at the level of the BMR. Similarly, data is not consistently produced at the scale of the BMR.",11,False
cf85afd,"Walking accessibility should be improved, with especial consideration for accessibility for persons with disabilities. Transport strategy will need to be further developed and, if streets become narrower, the currently successful public transport system will need to be extended and improved. Green spaces should be multi-functional: accessible to citizens, protection from noise, purification of air, and help in lowering extremely high temperatures.",11,True
07a3bb5,"The tool is intended to assist governments and decision makers in deciding on the most appropriate road safety policies and measures to achieve tangible results. The model is based on historical road safety data and relations between several road safety parameters, and provides information on different road safety scenarios. The tool's output is a spider diagram that summarizes a city's overall state of urban transport and performance against each indicator.",11,True
1753862,"Both parts of the outcome document—the “Quito Declaration on Sustainable Cities and Human Settlements for All” and the “Quito Implementation Plan for the New Urban Agenda”—clearly enunciate three priorities that will frame the successful execution of Goal 11 and the urban aspects of the other SDGs, and lead to the achievement of sustainable urbanization in the coming decades. These priorities are: having a supportive governance structure, inventing and maintaining twenty-first century planning and managing urban spatial development, and establishing sound financing mechanisms. For overall guidance, they reference the International Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning, adopted in April 2015 by the Governing Council of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). The Guidelines provide direction in establishing planning functions at several levels: national (e.g. connecting and balancing the system of towns and cities), metropolitan (e.g. regional economic development, rural-urban linkages, and ecosystem protection), municipal (e.g. design and protection of citywide systems of public space, capital investments in basic infrastructure, overall block layout, and connectivity), and neighbourhoods (e.g. site-specific design and local urban commons).",11,True
6f2c1fd,"The study also focused on the importance of cultural heritage as a factor attracting people to stay in the region. According to the study, about 60% of the tourists visited Raros because of the town's cultural heritage. In addition, around 40% of guests attending conferences stayed in Raros due to the cultural heritage of the town.",11,False
2564866,"Korea needs to work out its own mix of solutions adapted to its situation and culture. A Korean approach, with public support, needs to be developed. What the Safe System approach will deliver is new energy. The approach should be stepwise, with realistic interim targets to short/medium term deadlines complementing the ambitious long term vision.",11,False
e912a15,"However, in some cases a monetary evaluation of the values related to natural and cultural heritage may be beneficial and provide information that could stimulate balanced discussions about the options at hand, for instance regarding future land use and allocation of both public and private funding. The concept of ecosystem services is only emerging but has proved to be useful in this regard, in parallel to valuation methods focusing especially on cultural heritage.",11,True
6bbdf01,"They also had similar challenges, particularly around logistics and transportation, as well as coordination of efforts on the ground. However, in terms of learning from their experiences, while both countries conducted workshops to review the lessons learnt, only Vanuatu produced a detailed report with practical recommendations for the government to pursue. This is further evidence of Vanuatu's strong commitment to disaster risk reduction and management compared with Dominica.",11,False
6467c95,"There is too little water for current and future demand for potable water to be met from local sources. At the same time, torrential rainfall during the rainy season results in frequent flooding that affects residents, houses and infrastructure. Moreover, growing water demand, overexploited local and neighbouring aquifers and basins, ageing infrastructure, lack of investment, artificial low tariffs and high operation costs, and the deterioration of water quality have taken the water system to the limits of its physical and financial operability. The largest body of water is the artificially created lake “Nabor Carrillo”, with a surface area of about 10 km2, the sixth-largest lake in Mexico (CONAGUA, 2014a).",11,True
297defc,"Current production of desalinated water is expected to quadruple by 2019 (Edwards et al., While large-scale desalination significantly increases water availability, it has potentially adverse environmental impacts in the form of greater energy consumption and subsequent increases in greenhouse gas emissions (OECD, 2011 a). Brine discharges to the sea can lead to substantial increases in salinity and temperature, and to the accumulation of metals (e.g. iron), hydrocarbons and toxic anti-fouling compounds in receiving waters (Roberts et al.,",11,False
712f355,"One of the main problems is that even the existence of landfills does not guarantee an adequate treatment of waste. Only between 3.9% and 6.7% of the waste that enters into the selection plants is recuperated, and the rest is deposited in landfills. Managing solid waste costs MXN 3 billion yearly (USD 185 million approximately). Mexico City has 13 transfer stations to select, store and concentrate solid waste. It also has two selection plants to separate waste that can be recycled.",11,True
ade7724,"These tools are contributing to the growing science of cities. This initiative envisions the use of circular economy techniques to link an urban extension to existing settlements. The initiative aims to incen-tivize ideas for decentralized, closed-loop models of spatial planning and peri-urban service provision that replace fossil energy with renewables, derive new water, biogas, and fertilizer from wastewater, and produce food and biofuel with recycled inputs, all co-generated at near net-zero waste. Each RENEWW Zone would offer, within walking or cycling distance, a green space for community recreation, recycling and sanitation services, as well as a place to purchase fresh food, recycled goods, biofuels and safe drinking water.",11,True
9d14252,"The main focus of the plan in public spaces has been pavements, crossings, bus stops and reserved parking for people with disabilities. The city thus aimed at reducing barriers to walking, adapting existing environmental design and raising awareness among pedestrians and road users, all of which are measures to improve autonomous access to services and comprise a starting point for reducing social isolation. The matter generated intense public debate, as cobblestones are associated with Lisbon's visual identity. However, cobblestones make pavements irregular, uncomfortable and slippery, reducing safety and accessibility.",11,True
c089239,"Hence, to avoid duplication, this Review will not go into detail on these issues. Directly elected mayors in England”, Cahiers du MIMMOC, http://mimmoc.revues.org/2288 (accessed 22 November 2016). Problems of Economic Transition, Routledge, Vol. Kazakhstan 2050: Toward a Modern Society for All, Nazarbayev University, National Analytical Centre, Oxford University Press, Group Centennial International, Astana, pp.",11,False
d37700f,"The IUDF is expected to contribute to strengthening rural-urban linkages, and promote urban resilience and urban safety. These goals inform the priority objectives of nice policy levers: i) integrated urban planning and management, ii) integrated transport and mobility, iii) integrated sustainable human settlements, iv) integrated urban infrastructure, v) efficient land governance and management, vi) inclusive economic development, vii) empowered active communities, viii) effective urban governance, and ix) sustainable finances. The current urban legislative framework in Viet Nam, despite its considerable extent (e.g., laws, plans, strategies and programmes) (Table 2.2), has a very similar caveat as the current urban policy frameworks.",11,True
84783a4,"These linkages have multifaceted positive impacts on individuals, families and communities. The potential for the co-development of urban and rural communities exists but requires partnerships between the migrants and the local authorities of both communities as well as support from national governments. It assists to shift the focus away from why people move to how they work, live and shape their habitats. Cities across the development spectrum have growing mobile and diverse populations to manage. In developed countries, one of the main sources of population diversity is international migration while, in less-developed countries, it is most likely internal migration1 and, to a lesser extent, growing international South-South migration.",11,True
0c2f972,"Substantial increases in land productivity were achieved through strict enforcement of the adoption of high-yield crop varieties, subsidised fertiliser and pesticide programmes, and collection and distribution systems run by the government. In order to rebuild agriculture, the Saemaul Undong was first initiated from 1971 to 1973, under the strong leadership of the central government. At the beginning, 6 000 rural villages participated, increasing to 34 665 villages in 1973.",11,False
068bdca,"There are also significant opportunities for disaster risk reduction, response and reconstruction in cities including through land use planning, building codes and regulations, risk assessments, monitoring and early warning, and building-back-better response and reconstruction approaches. The response of cities to the challenges of climate change has been fragmented, and significant gaps exist between the rhetoric of addressing climate change and the realities of action on the ground. The critical factor shaping urban responses to climate change is government capacity, which is hindered by factors that are institutional, technical, economic, or political in character. In developing countries, where resources are particularly limited, municipal authorities might be hesitant to invest in climate change adaptation given the many competing issues on their urban agendas.",11,True
083611a,"Due to highly arid conditions, the region is one of the most vulnerable to climate change, putting cities at risk of water scarcity and extreme heat conditions. However, it was found that the ""underlying risks of humanitarian crisis and disasters challenge the process of building resilience in the Arab region, combined with the lack of coping capacities when faced with climate change, conflict, and displacement. City-wide hazard maps are often limited or do not exist, while updates on risk assessment are scarce and lack clear multi-hazard components, according to a recent assessment.410 This challenge is often linked to disaster risk governance, when the legal framework fails to require the maintenance and updating of disaster data.",11,True
239c874,"So should the risk-informed development approach called for in the Sendai Framework, through the systematic integration of risk information across all sectoral planning processes. Delivering DRR is possible in any context, but the scope of what is viable and appropriate will change depending on the context. And for some, such as those affected by armed conflict and fragility, what this looks like is still to be learned.469 There remains a dearth of practical and policy advice on how to devise and implement DRR strategies for complex risk contexts, including where violent conflict forms part of the broader environment in which DRR takes place.",11,True
5871162,"The National Urban Policy Programme (NUPP) is meant to address these issues of governance, capacity and knowledge sharing to facilitate the development of NUPs and to contribute to the implementation of the New Urban Agenda and other global agreements. Other objectives include direct assistance, such as providing training to policymakers and other relevant stakeholders to help them develop specialised skills to directly bridge the capacity gap or offering technical assistance and advisory services for every stage of the NUP cycle within a country. Finally, it also aims to build a platform for all levels of government, the private sector and civil society actors and any other relevant stakeholder to be engaged, network and exchange, to encourage transfer of best practices and policies, and raise awareness of NUPs.",11,True
ee6f4bc,"Thus, it provides assistance in the preparation of public decisions of elected officials, its implementation, its monitoring and Evaluation. It may give themselves records or any matter it deems necessary. It occupies a prominent place for the dissemination of information within the professional circles and associations, or even to the entire population and receives experts as needs.",11,False
1a275c0,"Historically, economic development has usually been accompanied by higher emigration rates.32 As countries develop, rates of emigration tend to rise before they fall. Emigration rates in middle-income countries have been found to triple those of low-income countries. Furthermore, in developing countries at the early or intermediate stages of the demographic transition, emigration is spurred by the large cohorts of relatively well-educated young people entering the labour market. Migration can also propel economic development through increased labour productivity.",11,False
10cd523,"Although data is available for a few countries, it needs to be re-packaged to allow for disaggregation by relevant variables. Local materials provide efficient ways for energy conservation and protection from disasters. In developing economies between 7 and 10% of the labour force are involved in residential construction.",11,True
db56329,"International donors increased their involvement in waste management during the last few years and this resulted in improvements in management of obsolete pesticides and expired chemicals, but management of municipal and manufacturing waste is developing slowly and old practices remain. This development reduced generated amounts of waste and in some sectors also decreased the amount of waste previously accumulated. The development of modem waste management infrastructure is still in the initial phase.",12,True
598f339,"In response, international organizations such as the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have promoted the exchange of policy initiatives, action programmes and practices among member countries, industrial associations and academic institutions. For example, UNEP introduced cleaner production (CP), which promotes a shift from end-of-pipe treatment to pollution prevention, while the UNDP has appealed for environmentally sound technology in technology transfer programmes and assistance to developing countries. In the follow-up meeting after the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21, the International Human Dimensions Programme (IHDP) was established as a collaborative platform for social scientists and policy-oriented academics.",12,True
6f735c8,"Mauritius covers a total land area of 720 square miles, and is almost entirely of volcanic origin, except for stretches of beaches, coral reefs and small patches of alluvium at the mouths of rivers. Pear-shaped, mountainous with its highest peak standing at 2,711 feet above sea level, Mauritius emerged from the ocean floor some 5 million years ago. Volcanic activity over thousands of years has given rise to varied types of soil.",12,False
b92a53b,"The strategy's objectives are to sensitize and raise awareness among school children of the negative impact that using plastic bags has on the environment, to encourage schoolchildren to replace plastic bags with other less-polluting alternatives and to teach them how to properly dispose of plastic bags after use. A key event was organized for Earth Day 2010 in all the schools, and a guide to waste management was widely distributed at the event. The children not only participated in collecting plastic bags at nature sites and clean-up projects, but were also asked to pass on what they learned to friends and neighbours.",12,True
27e0ca2,"It is therefore evident that current patterns of consumption and production are environmentally unsustainable and socially inequitable. Economic growth, human development and wellbeing would need to be substantially decoupled from resource use and environmental impact (UNEP, 2011). Achieving gains in decoupling will not happen spontaneously, but will require well designed public policies that enable economic restructuring toward sustainable consumption and production and resource efficiency.",12,True
6b6d710,"Its mandate is two-fold: to promote energy security amongst its member countries through collective response to physical disruptions in oil supply and to advise member countries on sound energy policy. This paper reflects the views of the IEA Secretariat and may not necessarily reflect the views of the individual IEA member countries. The study also draws on contributions of Franziska Mueller-Langer, Jens Giersdorf and Anastasios Perimenis of the German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ), who provided parts of the sustainability chapter and four country profiles commissioned by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).",12,False
a21a6c1,"Thus the government's role is dual. On the one hand, it must act as a facilitator by providing the necessary infrastructure for tourists, promoting attractions and encouraging tourist arrivals. On the other hand, government’s role is to enforce laws of the land and these may, in some cases, be in conflict with its role as a promoter of tourism.",12,False
9a69bee,"One legacy of that programme was the establishment of the Programme of Advancement through Health and Education (PATH), a conditional cash transfer programme that now constitutes the core of the social safety net. Advocacy has been initiated by scientists and their students in the Climate Studies Group of the Department of Physics at the University of the West Indies (UWI), individual scholars in the Faculty of Social Sciences, the Centre for Sustainable Development at UWI, as well as by various ENGOs. Some of the research and the outreach based on this work have been funded by the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) and the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica (EFJ).",12,False
bb92bd9,"As a result, poverty is endemic, generously underestimated at 20 per cent of the population in 2011, with the majority of poor households located in rural communities. It is well known that poor communities generate negative pressure on the environment from ‘slash-and-burn’ agricultural activities, improper waste disposal for want of facilities, and settlement on fragile lands that are vulnerable to natural hazards. In the case of Jamaica, there are the additional challenges of servicing the mounting national debt, which in 2013 stood at over 140 per cent of GDP, and ensuring macroeconomic stability so as to provide a basis for economic growth.",12,True
b1aab31,"Some definition of technology is necessary- it should be 100% recyclable under readily available current technology. Cotton/polyester mixes, for example, can be more technically durable than pure cotton. This suggests that the 100% recyclable stamp would be more applicable to fast fashion and not recommended for textiles where lifetime is generally limited by technical strength rather than change in style or change in fit e.g. bed-linen. This would rule out linking to some of the information proposed in the provision - unless the regulation was to be changed.",12,True
f1196d7,"Design-for-disassembly was formulated to promote the easy recovery of parts and materials during the product disassembly process, while design-for-environment called for minimizing pollution and promoting resource conservation during product or system design. In product life-cycle considerations, extended producer responsibility (EPR) may be realized in collaboration with intelligent consumer behaviour. The European Union (EU) and WBCSD have shifted the leading concept of a resource-circulating society from sustainable production and consumption in the 1990s to sustainable consumption and production in a “consumer society”.",12,True
14bb6ee,"Resource efficiency can be achieved by increasing resource productivity (value added / resource use) or reducing resource intensity (resource use / value added). It is related to strategies like dematerialisation, such as fuel efficient cars. It will be clear that no production can be said to be sustainable if it is profligate in the use of resources, thus there is a direct link between resource efficiency and SCP, particularly sustainable production.",12,True
c0f238e,"Children and youth in cities”, in ISSC/UNESCO, World Social Science Report 2013: Changing Global Environments, OECD Publishing and Unesco Publishing. Each author is responsible for the facts contained in his/her article and the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO, ISSC and do not commit either organisation.",12,False
8a7965f,"It takes stock of policy initiatives to reduce waste generation, encourage recycling and ensure safe disposal of municipal and hazardous waste. The chapter also highlights progress in integrating informal waste pickers into municipal waste management. It discusses the environmental and economic implications of specific measures, such as extended producer responsibility and waste collection charges. National, regional and local authorities have well-defined responsibilities in waste management.",12,True
bf8bd7f,"Policy instruments based on EPR can also be designed to drive eco-design at the beginning of the product lifecycle. However, if the instruments are focused only on improved recycling without driving initial eco-design, EPR may not generate the desired economic and environmental efficiencies (Tojo, N., 2004). Outcomes from economic incentives alone, however, may not be sufficient to generate environmentally or socially meaningful results, because actors generally stop making improvements once the economic incentive to do so ends, whether or not sufficient social or environmental progress has been made. Examples of economic mechanisms employed by OECD governments include also disincentives such as increased fees on waste disposal, and incentives such as government procurement policies and a potential reduction in the value added tax (VAT) and tax for environmentally friendly products (all promoted by the government of the Czech Republic, among others).",12,True
097aada,"Having been conceived, tested and refined in Dhaka, the IRRC approach was found to be robustly suited to the realities of low and middle-income cities. Under this project, ESCAP and Waste Concern, in partnership with national and local governments, community groups and technical teams, promoted the IRRC model in 17 cities, ultimately establishing facilities and pursuing associated activities in seven of them (Figure 4). The centre is a small-scale facility that can receive different types of waste, including organic and inorganic waste, and then transform it all into resources, such as compost, biogas and other fuels and clean recyclable material.",12,True
eb959eb,"Many governments are recognizing this, and some have reformed their subsidies or are in the process of phasing them out. In 2015 and 2016, with low oil prices, around 50 countries increased or removed government controls on prices of fossil fuels, directly or partially removing subsidies. In 2013 Finland scrutinized 400 subsidy measures according to their environmental and social impacts and costs.",12,True
cb71771,"Indicators can go beyond simple data and illustrate trends or cause-and-effect relationships between different phenomena. Indicators are useful for describing baseline and current conditions (e.g. the amount or magnitude of something) and the performance of a system. They can provide the common language for describing a particular system that is needed for effective and clear communication among interested parties (McCool and Stankey, 2004).",12,False
6be25de,"Against a backdrop of social issues, natural resource limits and waste problems, the question of how people live and consume - the lifestyles they pursue - becomes central to sustainability. The continuing increase in population in Asia, Africa and Latin America needs to sustain itself, in a fast growing economic environment, the level of material consumption per person also increases. For example, according to the African Development Bank (AtDB 2011), there was a growth rate of 3.1% in the middle-class (defined as those consuming between 2-20 USD per day) in Africa, rising from 126 million people (27%) in 1980 to 350 million (34%) in 2010.",12,True
5f48305,"During the latter two decades, protected areas have gradually become more closely connected to their economic and social environments, with an emphasis to integrate national parks to wider regional and local development processes (see e.g. Puhakka and Saarinen (2013). In peripheries, closer connections between the tourism industry and national parks are used as tools. While the original biocentric conservation policy used to be characterized by top-down governance, stakeholders of the local communities and the tourism industry are today increasingly involved in adaptive management strategies. During the last three decades, international tourist arrivals to Iceland have generally increased, including by 25% over the past six years. The number of international visitors to Iceland was approximately 2.3 million in 2017, which is almost seven times more than the entire Icelandic population. Tourism is now one of the main pillars of the economy and represents the country's largest export sector.",12,False
c3ca123,"Further extending the green purchasing requirements to local governments would enhance the effectiveness of the policy, in particular since a large share of public expenditure is invested locally. In expanding its green purchasing policy, the government should make sure that it targets goods and services with the highest potential environmental returns. This outcome was achieved with minor increases in public expenditure. Since the introduction of the green public procurement policy, the market shares of eco-friendly products widely used in the public administration have substantially increased (Figure 9). According to MOE’s estimates, the national government’s green purchasing policy resulted in a reduction of C02 emissions by 89 500 tonnes in 2006, which is equivalent to the amount of C02 emitted by a town of 42 000 inhabitants. The financial implications of Japan’s green public procurement policy and the overall costs to the Japanese economy of achieving such emission reductions should be assessed and compared with the costs of alternative policy measures.",12,True
e99bf5c,"In addition, the Major Groups and other Stakeholders (MGOS)21 group seeks to represent all sectors of society in international environmental and developmental policy-making. It appears that MGOS do not have an established position within SAICM, the representation of stakeholders is sectoral and the involvement of all major groups is not automatic - for example, organizations focused on promoting the rights of women, children, and indigenous peoples do not routinely participate in SAICM meetings. In 2015, the ICCM4, in its Resolution i/IV (para 5), called for the deepening and broadening of UN system-wide engagement through the work of IOMC and EMG. Furthermore, the WHO has been working with the SAICM Secretariat to provide a service to facilitate access to the Trust Fund, to establish an informal network of health-sector focal points for sharing experience, and to collect and share information on the capacity-building needs of the health sector (WHO 2010).",12,False
e2aab7c,"The recommendations on waste and materials management are summarised in a box at the end of the chapter. More recently, building on its well-established track record in waste management, the government has been laying the groundwork to stimulate the transition towards a circular economy. This is defined as ""an economic system that is predicated on the reusability of products and raw materials and the conservation of natural resources and that pursues the creation of value in each link in the system” (Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment, 2014a).",12,True
3c96ad2,"For the last one a comply or explain principle is in use. To enable readers to find the particular sustainability information in the report, GRI is using a mandatory content index table that informs the reader on what page the disclosures or the indicator can be found. The Guidelines of the IIRC are currently in development and will be released as draft in April 2013 and finalized by the end of 2013.",12,True
af27cb1,"The project investigates the possibility for using policy actions to support and expand the market for waste plastics in the Nordic region. This has the objective of increasing the recycling of plastics and minimising the down-cycling and incineration of plastic waste. Separately collecting and recycling this plastic waste would have significant economic and environmental benefits. For example, recovering and recycling half of the plastic waste generated in the Nordic countries corresponds roughly to a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to the total emissions from cars in the Nordic capitals.",12,True
a41d373,"In this sense, it was based on natural resources that were transformed into cement using energy-intensive processes. Again, the viability of this industry assumed cheap energy supplies. Demand for middle-class housing, hotels and physical infrastructure drove the rapid expansion of the construction sector in the 1950s and 1960s. The supply of housing and hotels was also dependent on imported building materials and construction equipment.",12,False
5950bd8,"The transformation process is necessarily long term. With governments elected for five years, there is an inherent tendency to postpone addressing long-term development issues that is all the more difficult in the context of a highly partisan political tradition that resists consensus over development strategies. Progress in mainstreaming the environmental dimension of sustainable development strategies has been slow. Such policies address cross-cutting issues, and in the Westminster system of sectoral portfolio ministerial responsibilities, such issues tend to fall between ministerial responsibilities.",12,False
2e889a5,"This term, however, is often used as a synonym for material productivity. Productivity measurement and analysis of natural resource and material flows complement the traditional indicators of capital, land and labour productivity. Used in parallel, these three types of productivity indicators afford a much deeper understanding of total factor productivity.",12,False
78af6c0,"The World Bank estimates that out of the 500 largest cities in the developing countries, only 4% are deemed credit worthy in international capital markets and 20% on the local markets. Of the available funding over the last 10 years, two-thirds has gone to just 10 middle-income countries. Making the necessary investment finance available to those who need it most, in the low-income countries, is an urgent priority and a particular challenge.",12,False
6bdd819,"To do this, Section 1.1 looks at the reasons why fossil-fuel subsidies are generally considered to be harmful for the economy and the environment. Section 1.2 then shows how this helps explain the recent emergence of a consensus for reforming fossil-fuel subsidies, and how this growing consensus has led to a number of policy initiatives internationally and domestically. Section 1.3 then concludes by placing the OECD Inventory onto that broader stage, emphasising the important role it plays in ongoing discussions of energy policies and their reform. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.",12,True
db0223b,"If an EIA is carried out, but improperly and leading to environmental damage, the licensed EIA entity must pay compensation. There is also a mismatch between the economic value for animals, their conservation status and their market value (chapter 3). The 2012 Law on Hunting, for example, foresees a reward of 15 per cent of fines imposed to be given to the citizen identifying the person responsible for the violation.",12,False
52ce8b2,"These are primarily wind, solar, hydro, biofuels and co-generation. In addition, governments have partnered with private sector and civil society organisations to support small and microenterprises with training and concessionary financing. The annual budget is Jamaica’s short-term plan. There is also a rolling three-year Medium Term Social and Economic Policy Framework, and an annually revised three-year macroeconomic plan, which frames the annual budget. In theory, all of these should be aligned with one another within the long-term plan, Vision 2030. In addition, there are ongoing initiatives to prepare parish plans under the Local Sustainable Development Plans, which also ought to be aligned to the national plans.",12,False
c00540f,"More sustainable alternatives should be available and easily accessible, as well as suitable infrastructure to make it easier to practice sustainable behaviour. Even well-intended people cannot live sustainably if there are no sustainable products and alternatives available. These could include peer pressure, putting more taxes on unsustainable options and funding more sustainable practices. For example by providing input to policy design, in expressing what is meaningful to them and what they care about in real life and in society, in understanding the advantages and disadvantages of certain behavioural patterns.",12,True
df788f5,"While this may or may not lead to a net increase in employment, it will change the skill profile of the workforce. Governments should therefore assess new job skill requirements and adjust education and training programmes accordingly. This could help to co-ordinate efforts by engaging key stakeholders, to monitor progress, and generally to provide the political impetus needed to achieve ambitious policy objectives.",12,False
31659c9,"Not to act is no longer an option. And I was encouraged by the sense of reality shown by the G8-leaders a few weeks ago, when they talked about a 50% cut in global emissions by 2050. It bodes well for the Conference of the Parties to be held in Copenhagen in 2009, where we will work hard to reach a global deal beyond Kyoto.",12,False
d2446e0,"The varied relief has resulted in several distinct climatic regimes, with the prevailing south-east trade winds depositing moisture in the form of rainfall over the central and highest part of the island. A significant feature of Mauritian climatology, however, is the occurrence of tropical cyclones during the summer months. Almost 300 endemic species have been identified, of which the most famous was the Dodo, a large flightless bird now extinct. Permanent human settlement started in the fifteenth century and, ever since, the environment has come under severe threat as its few precious resources (such as ebony) have been exploited indiscriminately.",12,False
4837889,"This increase can be caused by both an actual increase in waste generation and by improved monitoring of collected waste amounts. The average MSW composition was derived from analyses in Minsk, Gomel, Mogilev, Bobruisk and Polotsk (table 6.2). Also, analysis of waste composition was performed in Minsk Oblast in 2013.",12,True
e05d393,"At the same time internal transparency through environmental management accounting started to increase with a business rationale to improve efficiency and reduce costs, in relation to using natural resources, reducing emissions to air, water and soil, as well as in reducing waste. More recently companies increasingly see the relevance of sustainability for their long term business continuity and identify sustainability challenges as a business growth driver. They even transform their business to address such business opportunities. The company, DSM, active in health, nutrition and materials, for example, is not only changing from a chemical company to bio-based solutions, but also focuses its business activities much more on nutrition, as this will be a major global challenge.",12,True
3245292,"Complementing the theoretical approach outlined in the previous chapter, this chapter focuses on the practical and strategic side of implementation, considering the multiple dimensions of successful implementation. Effective policies therefore often have to be developed in collaboration between line ministries. It is important to have effective mechanisms in place to support such collaboration.",12,False
6db139a,"In moving towards green growth such frameworks should where applicable be aligned. However, in recent years the term ""accounting"" has also been applied to non-financial aspects. Corporate accounting can be defined as the identification, collection, estimation, analysis, internal and external reporting, of economic, social and environmental effects and impacts to provide accountability to stakeholders on strategy, actions and performance and to support internal and external decision-making.",12,True
dbc9f6a,"At local level, the main partners have been the collaboration of local food producers, R0rosmat as well as the R0ros Museum and World Heritage and local businesses. Destination Roros is currently (spring 2016) undergoing the recertification process. Additionally, the goal is to encourage even more companies to apply for an environmental certificate and to train more people.",12,True
9138ce7,"In recent years, significant improvements in the assessment methodologies have been made in an effort mostly co-ordinated by the UNEP/ SETAC initiative (de Haes, 2002, UNEP, 2003, Jolliet et al., The EU Joint Research Centre has also made an important input in the determination of effective practice in impact assessment, which has resulted in the adoption of 14 default impact categories for the EU footprinting initiative (Product Environmental Footprint (PEF)/ Organisational Environmental Footprint (OEF), European Commission, 2013a, European Commission, 2013b).",12,True
3770611,"There are estimated to be 500 international treaties and agreements on the environment (155 biodiversity-related, 179 chemicals-related, 46 land-related, and 196 water-related) and a proliferation of subsidiary bodies for the different conventions and administrative arrangements. Additionally, important are leveraging synergies in responsibilities of conventions across various sectoral policies, with the promotion of joint implementation and coordination of funding sources and programmes, as well as multi-stakeholder outreach and engagement to ensure buy-in.5 Capacity building is required given the increasingly complex scientific and technical issues involved. Meanwhile, critical actions may not be taken with fallout for human and environmental health.",12,True
de72b08,"The statement was made in 1972, long before the world became conscious of acceleration in anthropogenic GHG emissions. Nevertheless, Mrs Gandhi’s statement was one of the earliest to create a direct link between environmental concerns and poverty alleviation. Neither can the poor be held responsible for the major part of the GHG emissions.",12,False
b1b9d14,"This refers to the manufacture, use and disposal of lifestyle goods such as electronics and clothing. Key sectors of high impact include food, housing and transport. In these sectors, wafer, energy and waste can be considered as crosscutting sectors affecting and affected by almost every lifestyle domain.",12,True
8b9847d,"A delicate balance has to be maintained and this is where voluntary initiatives such as the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GTSC) certification scheme play a critical role: there is no confrontation since the industry has voluntarily agreed to follow norms which will not only meet but frequently exceed the requirements of the law. The recommendations are based on a list of 12 principles for sustainable tourism development. Typically the Sustainable Tourism Criteria established by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council extend to measurable indicators and an appraisal and certification scheme which is rapidly gaining acceptance by the accommodation sector. Laws pertaining to land use, access, waste disposal, pollution control, minimum wages and the like exist in almost all countries: occasionally, these are relaxed for the tourism industry in some developing countries in an effort to attract foreign tourists and investments in the industry.",12,True
f2d5705,"Food losses are highest in North America and Oceania, reaching close to 300 kg per person. The focus would need to be on addressing the financial, managerial and technical limitations in harvesting techniques, as well as ensuring adequate storage and cooling facilities in often challenging climatic conditions. Quantifying postharvest losses in Sub-Saharan Africa with a focus on cereals and pulses Presentation at the Bellagio Workshop on Postharvest Management, 12-14 September 2017. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) has developed a methodology to improve the measurement of food losses across the value chain, as well as to factor in deterioration in quality that result in economic losses.",12,True
ef16e4c,"On another note, it is questionable whether there is even a need for a new scientific body for SAICM. As long as there are no legally binding obligations for states under SAICM, a scientific expert panel may not be needed. According to this view, the recommendations that SAICM provides could well be created without such a body.",12,True
5ce945b,"Once among the least developed Western economies, with high levels of emigration, since 2003 Ireland has enjoyed the third highest per capita GDP in OECD Europe (Figure 6.1).1 The growing economy attracted an inflow of foreign workers, the unemployment rate was 4.7% in 2007, below the OECD average. In the first half of the 2000s, large public sector deficits were transformed into substantial surpluses and the ratio of national debt to GNP was greatly reduced, while the tax-to-GDP ratio remained low (31.9% of GDP in 2006, compared with an OECD Europe average of 38%). The combination of a low corporate tax (12.5%), state grants and access to the European single market boosted foreign direct investment.",12,False
fcc940f,"There are also examples at the national level. The Dutch Sustainable Growth Coalition, for example, unites the eighth largest big multinationals in shaping, sharing and stimulating sustainable business models. The changing role of business in society is also reflected in the increased participation by businesses in the discussions in various forums of the United Nations such as UN Global Compact, the development of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, as well as at international conferences such as the Rio+20 conference, which confirmed the importance of corporate sustainability reporting. When moving towards green growth requires a joint public private approach then there should also be more convergence between public and private measurement and reporting to follow the progress made to achieve the goals of green growth.",12,True
8fb4bc1,"It can provide better recreational and cultural facilities but also create overcrowding, traffic congestion, litter, vandalism and crime (UNESCAP 2003). Started as the World Tourism Organisation in 1970 when its statutes were adopted, it became a working entity in 1975 with Headquarters in Madrid and joined the UN system in 2003, becoming known as UNWTO. Following the recommendations of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) that “developed countries must take the lead"" in accelerating the shift towards more sustainable consumption and production, each of the Marrakech Task Forces was chaired by a developed country.",12,True
74dc31a,"For each of these topics different indicators have been developed and the indicator protocols include definitions and the way the data need to be compiled, as well as further references. To measure for example the CO2 emissions the indicator protocol refers to Green House Gas measurement protocol of the WBCSD/World Resource Institute. The information that is reported in a sustainability report according to the GRI guidelines does not only include quantitative indicators but also provides information on the strategy, the organizational profile, the governance processes, the stakeholder engagement processes and the management approach. This information is relevant to obtain the context in which the data are provided. Each organization has a different ambition level and specific sustainability issues and therefore reporting is different for different organizations. The topics and indicators to report on are based on a materiality analysis that the company performs.",12,True
e10fb59,"The initiative engaging the manufacturer, Grameen Bank, National Building Research Organization and vulnerable families encourages the use of local sustainable building materials, quality durable construction and livelihood considerations such as including shop fronts in the houses. The initiative required a high degree of informal collaborative learning and training. Learning occurs at both the level of the community, as well as within the company, where lessons of Mexican success are explored to be translated across other regions.",12,True
7c47354,"Part b) on measures taken before a product has become waste, that reduce the adverse impacts of the eventually generated waste on the environment and health also has some importance. Here though the focus should be on initiatives which reduce upstream environmental impacts caused by food waste rather than downstream impacts. This can be done for example through initiatives which reduce the share of products in food waste which cause a particularly high environmental impact during their production phase. Meat and dairy products are a prime example. The more edible food waste that is avoided in an economy, the less food production that is required to feed the population, with an accompanying reduction in environmental impacts caused during food production.",12,True
c95a6ff,"In 2014, the System was extended to include a dedicated web portal. This cadastre provides public access to the processes of issuing and reissuing of licences, licence revocation, transfer, pledge and surrender for the entire or a part of the licensed area, as well as to maintaining a register of licences. One of the main objectives of this tool is to prevent licences from overlapping other licences or protected areas.",12,False
7ace8cd,"These inequalities were exacerbated by the structural adjustment programmes of the 1980s, the liberalisation of the economy in the 1990s, and the rapid growth of financial services after the liberalisation of financial markets in 1991. On the advice of the international financial institutions, governments have opted to offer targeted assistance to poor households rather than generalised subsidies on basic goods (e.g. staple foods) and services (e.g. water and electricity). Towards this end, the government has tracked the incidence and prevalence of poverty, and conducted poverty mapping to be able to identify the vulnerable households.",12,False
4b2d68f,"Owing to success of the first phase, UNU and Shimadzu agreed to continue the project, establishing the second phase in 1999. In continuation of the previous project, the same research group in each country was kept as partner and national implementation unit. The Philippines joined the project at the beginning of the second phase. The three components were closely linked together and implemented through collaboration of the UNU network on coastal issues.",12,False
31309c8,"It contributes 8.4 per cent to global employment (238 million jobs)1 and is projected to grow at an average of 4 per cent over the next decade. Rising per capita incomes and the operation of competitive low-cost airlines have also contributed to this increase. China is particularly significant as it alone is expected to contribute 100 million travellers.4 All indications are that in spite of a downturn in the global economy beginning in 2008 due to the global financial crisis, the travel and tourism industry is robust enough to withstand these pressures over the next decade. Depending upon the sophistication of the industry in terms of the solidity of its linkages and supply chains, some destinations are likely to recover more quickly than others.",12,False
bc9d795,"It also prepares technical documentation related to chemical safety that can be downloaded from its website. The documentation includes government manuals, SDS and information on the GHS and other UN initiatives. There are ten ARLs - effectively insurance companies that cover workplace injuries and illnesses, each with a different focus.",12,True
96edad8,"Refrain from seeking or accepting exemptions not contemplated in the statutory or regulatory framework related to human rights, environmental, health, safety, labour, taxation, financial incentives, or other issues. Support and uphold good corporate governance principles and develop and apply good corporate governance practices, including throughout enterprise groups. Develop and apply effective self-regulatory practices and management systems that foster a relationship of confidence and mutual trust between enterprises and the societies in which they operate.",12,False
f9d9372,"Its mandate is to foster cooperation between its 53 members and 9 associate members. It supports Governments of the region in consolidating regional positions and advocates regional approaches to meeting the region's unique socio-economic challenges in a globalizing world. The ESCAP head office is located in Bangkok, Thailand, with subregional offices in Almaty, Kazakhstan, Incheon, Republic of Korea, New Delhi, India, and Suva, Fiji. Please visit our website at <www.unescap.org> for further information.",12,False
09dce49,"The framework also functions as a bridging mechanism between the narrowly construed MEAs pertaining to chemicals and waste, which include the Stockholm, Rotterdam, Basel, and Minamata Conventions. The Dubai Declaration, which expresses high-level political support for the framework. The Overarching Policy Strategy (OPS), which contains the five key thematic objectives of SAICM: (1) risk reduction, (2) knowledge and information, (3) governance, (4) capacity-building and technical cooperation, and (5) illegal international traffic in chemicals. The OPS also lays down the scope, needs, underlying principles, and approaches of SAICM and elaborates on implementation and progress review mechanisms. The Global Plan of Action, which is an evolving and practical toolkit for implementation that currently lists more than 270 activities that can be undertaken by diverse stakeholders to operationalize SAICM.",12,True
2da5b5b,"According to the System of National Accounts, the principles underlying International Financial Reporting Standards are in most cases consistent with its principles, providing a comprehensive, consistent and flexible set of macroeconomic accounts.11 The System of National Accounts states that there could be areas of difference between the two systems, however, cooperation would be useful with a view to showing a reconciliation between the two positions.",12,False
9fc050c,"Previous studies, of wildlife crime, have revealed some variation of sentencing across the country, in different aimags, but, generally speaking, limits on data availability prevent a thorough comparison. For example, a mining licence can be revoked for failure to adopt an EMP, comply with such a plan or submit compliance reports. The former data set provides information on the location, date of detection, type of crime or infringement, classification of the offence and status of the procedure (e.g. whether transferred to the prosecutor’s office with a recommendation to prosecute). The latter data set provides information on damage and on items seized. Information is not available on the outcome of prosecution, including sentencing. Figure 2.5 shows the evolution of criminal law violations over the period 2011-2016 with the data appearing to be incomplete in the period 2009-2010.",12,False
43dff00,"Importantly, the IUCN works through specialist commissions that provide the Union with information and know-how. All the members of the IUCN together agree on, for example, the work programme of the organization. This would mean conducting studies and developing new policy recommendations or instruments based on the latest scientific findings. In addition, the IUCN governance structure could be used as a partial model for the post-2020 chemicals and waste management regime: the ICCM acts as the general assembly of members, and a governing council could be established to work under the direction and monitoring of the ICCM.",12,True
72316fd,"Good corporate governance makes for good business for all. Good corporate governance helps reduce the risks that smaller firms may face as well. At the other end of the spectrum, cases of corporate malfeasance in state-owned enterprises illustrate that regardless of size or ownership, good corporate governance is critical.",12,False
acb0225,"The statement was welcomed by the Advisory Group. During the intersessional period, discussion continued on whether sustainability reporting and core indicators should be used at a corporate consolidated level or at a legal entity level. Given that the impact of companies is realized at the local level, some experts argue that data should be provided by a legal entity of a home country. However, it is also important to consider that group-level consolidated sustainability reporting is critical as a means to align corporate behaviour and business models with the 2030 Agenda. Consolidated reporting is also a basis for financial decision-making by investors.",12,True
a71e9fb,"This huge increase alone speaks of amazing achievements in terms of ICT access and bridging the digital divide. This interpretation, however, would be very narrow as the factors leading to ICT access are bound to interact with the environments in which they operate. In this case, a critical analysis of mobile subscriptions by level of development should trigger alarm bells as the sharp increase in ICT access is inordinately skewed towards developing countries as illustrated in figure 9.2.",12,False
c4e6e80,"It identifies opportunities and challenges for implementing SPP and provides guidance for governments in developing and implementing successful SPP programs. It saw reiteration in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation in 2002 and more recently, at the 19m Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development in 2011. It forms part of the 10 year Framework of Programmes suggested at the recently concluded Summit in Rio in June 2012.",12,True
e1259ce,"Based on 2011 data, generation is above average in the Capital area at 460 kg/cap/y, and in the coastal region influenced by tourism at 480 kg/cap/y, although excluding the impact of tourists the average is 420 kg/cap/y. The remaining inland region shows under-average waste generation, at only 223 kg/cap/y. The reason for such a high variation in per capita waste generation at county level could be because the impact of the non-permanent tourist population is not considered in the calculation of this indicator.",12,True
f43a787,"Dr Edward W Manning and T David Dougherty, 2000. The study (Lot 1 Research Capacity) was conducted by PA Government Services under the Caribbean Regional Sustainable Tourism Development Programme (CRSTDP), funded by the 8th European Development Fund (EDF), August 2006. See Reil G Cruz, 2006, 47pp. Also World Bank, Caribbean Country Management Unit, 2005.",12,False
798dd35,"Many countries have modernised their societies and economies enabling the greatest level of material wellbeing ever experienced. These changes were most prevalent in OECD countries and in urban centres in developing countries. The use of natural resources -biomass, fossil fuels, ores, minerals and water - has grown dramatically from less than 10 billion tonnes in 1950 to over 70 billion tonnes in 2010 (UNEP, 2011). This level of resource use was largely based on the assumption of limitless resources and overlooked the connections between resource use and environmental impacts.",12,True
f48f21c,"However, it does not include information on when licences are applied for (while providing the date of issue), nor on the reasons for and conditions on the numerous licence transfers. There is also a problem at present with accessing the area covered by petroleum licences in the Ministry of Mining and Heavy Industry database. In addition, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism is not providing the most recent data on receipts to its special fund for mining rehabilitation, arguing that this is not permitted by banking legislation. Further, though licence holders provide information to the EITI, they are often unwilling to present the same information on their own websites, thus reducing transparency.",12,False
957a784,"The ways in which the tourists value different aspects of the surroundings are also influenced by experiences made during the visit. To the extent that information, interpretation and education do not have a sufficient influence on peoples' actual behaviour, co-creation initiatives are proposed as a more efficient way of transferring responsibility to visitors (Campos, Mendes, Valle, and Scott, 2015, Prebensen, Vitterso, and Dahl, 2013). Co-creation implies that the tourists participate in the design, production and consumption of an experience, even collaborating in the creation of new products and services (Binkhorst and Dekker, 2009).",12,False
4f25153,"We have not been able to get a clear answer from the responsible person at Teijin, and in the basic scenario it was therefore chosen to use a conservative approach, assuming a low yield of the process. For climate change, the increased efficiency means that there is a net benefit instead of an impact. The same finding is seen for human toxicity, cancer effects.",12,False
316e0d8,"Between 2000 and 2008, Japan’s economy grew by about 1.3% annually, a rate below the OECD average (about 2% per year). As a result of the global economic slowdown of 2008, the Japanese economy contracted sharply, and was dragged into the deepest recession since the Second World War (Section 2). Similarly, the OECD Europe aggregate does not include Estonia and Slovenia. In 2009, Japan’s GDP per capita in purchasing power parity was USD 29 800 and the OECD average was USD 30 500.",12,False
3c18a14,"Today, the dominant research on the effect of the educational systems and approaches related to sustainable development clearly favours impact on the individuals (as opposed to organisations and communities) and formal education (as opposed to non-formal and informal learning). In the modern world characterised by accelerated changes, lack of predictability and multiple economic, financial and environmental crises, different forms of knowledge and learning become a necessity. Even sectors that for a long time adhered to traditional ways of doing things, find themselves in need to adapt to the constant demand for (at least partial) transformation.",12,False
2786d34,"Some of the chemical applications to control weeds and pests on the plantations have run off from rain into the rivers and transferred to the inshore, especially the main harbour in Kingston. In other cases, chemicals have soaked through the soil into underground aquifers. This is particularly true of the acidic waste from the processing of bauxite ore, which is deposited in lakes of red mud.",12,True
0fbea9d,"This trend has been boosted by market liberalization and augmented by convergence, new technologies and resultant innovations such as mobile phones which continue to be the most rapidly adopted technology in history. While sector growth has been experienced worldwide, the impact has been exponential in developing countries. Today the mobile phone is the most popular and widespread personal communication technology on the planet, with an estimated average subscription world rate of 87 per 100 inhabitants in 20111.",12,False
8676a9d,"They were first identified and defined by the ESCAP Sustainable Business Network (ESBN) Task Force on Banking and Finance.55 These principles are constituent components of the SRB model (Figure 6). They establish strong ethical guidelines so that business practices meet globally accepted standards for the valuing and pricing of products, sen/ices and assets, engaging with stakeholders, and assessing and managing risks. Each principle is defined, and its role in the SRB Model for a Sustainable Future explained.",12,True
25d76ad,"Moreover, Huechuan and Guzman (2007) argue that the probability of not having sufficient income and belonging to a poor household increases in old age. In other words, old age entails greater fragility. Nonetheless, as noted in chapter VI, older adults are more vulnerable because they do not form part of the economically active population and would not be able to participate in public employment programmes that require physical strength, such as clearing rubble and constructing public works.",13,False
6ccb43c,"Authorship is usually collective, but principal authors are named. Some programmes have multiple donors, in which case they have been recorded under the agency that supplied the document. Some projects and programmes only have ex ante evaluations, others have ex ante and ex post evaluations as well as a number of intermediate reviews. This is in part due to the timing of the projects.",13,False
89a03bd,"However, emissions levels recorded in 1990 and immediately thereafter, rather than being real reductions in emissions, were actually due to economic decline, which caused GHG emissions to fall sharply. The Strategy was meant to be a general framework for climate change policies and measures during the brief period of 2005-2007, outlining Romania’s policies in meeting the international obligations under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, as well as the country’s national priorities such as EU integration and possible participation in EU ETS. It assigns tasks and responsibilities for all stakeholder institutions and identifies the main actors for each specific action and relevant task.",13,True
a2fd6ba,"Despite the shift in the economic structure, agriculture remains a major source of economic growth for the country, the principal source of income for the rural majority, and critical for food security for all Ethiopians. If poverty is to be reduced, and wealth created in ways in which the majority of the population can participate, then agriculture clearly has to be at the heart of any inclusive and green development strategy. More than 70% of crop land is devoted to cereal production, that area having expanded by 27% from 7.0 million hectares in 2003/04 to 9.6 million in 2011/12. More than 11 million smallholders engage in cereal production, with cereal production totalling 18 million tonnes in 2011/12.",13,False
7fa0045,"With per-person GDP of only $380‘, the proportion of the population below the poverty line in 2010/11 was 30.4% in rural areas and 25.7% in urban areas. Poverty has declined substantially according to the national Household Income Consumption Expenditure Survey. Between 2004/05 and 2010/11, income inequality measured by Gini Coefficient was changed little - from 0.3 in 2004/05 to 0.298 in 2010/11.2 While urban inequality declined from 0.44 to 0.37, rural inequality increased from 0.26 to 0.27 (MoFED, 2012a).",13,False
68de23e,"This was an attempt to provide a dual response to the emergency: while rubble was removed or precarious urban spaces were brought back into use, steps were taken to improve the satisfaction of basic needs by distributing new incomes (Lamaute-Brisson, 2013, p. 47). Firstly, “cash for work” programmes were implemented, consisting of a daily payment of the minimum wage to workers employed on highly labour-intensive projects to remove rubble and restore roads, footpaths and irrigation and community infrastructure systems. The “16/6” project (which aims to relocate people from six camps in their neighbourhoods of origin) had community participation in defining the works, which resulted in lighting for various public spaces to safeguard the integrity of women and children.",13,False
037e1a8,"According to data from the World Bank Enterprise Surveys from 2010-2017 in developing countries, access to finance is the foremost barrier to firm development (World Bank, 2017, Figure 1.1). These financial constraints are exacerbated for green growth and climate action in which the private sector is sometimes reluctant to invest, in part, to a lack of proven and readily available business models or a failure to understand the business case. Development cooperation can address both the demand side and offer side of the access to finance equation. On the one hand, it can stimulate demand for clean technologies, for example, by raising awareness and demonstrating the business case.",13,True
a9448da,"Table VIII.l shows the breakdown of types of disaster in the different subregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. Studies by Blaikie and others (1996) and by Cutter, Boruff and Shirley (2003) clearly identify the vulnerability factors that contribute to the occurrence of disasters. These include poverty, urban expansion into areas unsuitable for building, economic dependency on agricultural activities, the scant existence of financial insurance policies covering disasters, and growing environmental degradation. The consequence of this is that developing countries are highly likely to suffer extreme weather events, high temperatures, and the disruption of ecological systems that are bound to generate new risks for life, settlements, public-service infrastructure and production, among other things (Lo Vuolo, 2014, p. 19).",13,True
a001e5f,"On the other hand, poor vetting of private local partners, inadequate enforcement of environmental safeguards and insufficient accountability on the part of development finance end-users can lead to a lack of tangible positive environmental impacts, if not actually produce negative outcomes (Oxfam, 2015). Box 2.7 highlights one type instrument used in financial intermediation i.e. credit lines. Challenge funds’ financial contribution to a project is usually small compared to the overall size of the project, but sufficient to improve its risk profile and financial viability (Irwin and Porteous, 2005). Challenge funds typically require the grantee to match a portion of the funds disbursed, so as to ensure ownership and commitment to success.",13,False
ac555c9,"It would also be helpful to have some degree of international convergence on the approach to be used for calculating national BAU baselines. Parties could agree the time frame and GWPs or other GHG-equivalence metric to be used for commitments. It is possible that bounded flexibility could also be negotiated for other dimensions of mitigation commitments, depending on the varying national circumstances of countries.",13,True
c08ffb9,"Source: National Institutional Strategy for Climate Change. Although most of SAIs do not yet have the capacity and expertise to audit climate finance, it is within their mandate to audit public climate finance. In this respect, GIZ is providing support to SAIs in developing countries to strengthen their mandates.",13,True
5dbfa7e,"It does not include activities where the support for the private sector is channelled through public sector agencies e.g. credit lines through state owned banks or challenge funds managed by NGOs, which are covered in the second category. This approach has been used in two previous OECD analyses in Miyamoto and Chiofalo (2015) and Miyamoto and Biousse (2014). This approach has been used in a previous OECD analysis in Brown and Wang (2015).",13,False
df83f8b,"A number of factors, however, can complicate sharing lessons both within and between organisations. These include lack of formal co-ordination and advanced planning, uncertainty on how to organise information in a useful format, and difficulties in making context-specific findings relevant to other interventions (e.g. see previous discussion on RCTs). For instance, an independent review of the CIFs highlighted that the incorporation of information sharing and lesson learning in interventions varied significantly by fund (ICF, 2013).",13,False
2cc1ed9,"However it is also vital to restore the communications infrastructure as a whole. The internet, however, operates on the principles of packet-switching in which individual packets of information that make up a message can take any one of multiple routes according to availability. This level of redundancy makes it inherently more flexible and resilient.",13,False
90160b7,"It also uses the term “recipient” for the country, programme or activity the funds are being channelled to. Such terms may be less relevant for developing countries that provide support, given the different nature, modalities and responsibilities applicable to South-South co-operation. Countries are not viewed as donors and recipients, but providers and partners. Not all countries agree with the “boundaries” of ODA and OOF as defined by the OECD or view them as applicable (OECD, 2015b, Walz and Ramachandran, 2011).",13,False
ac38fbc,"Internal risks as they apply to individual public institutions or to the institutional system as a whole are not considered in detail here. For example, although risk management is an essential component of public procurement processes, it is out of the scope of this chapter. Similarly, anti corruption, for which risk and vulnerability are key considerations for effective strategies, is not addressed here (see chapter 2 in this report for a treatment of risk in corruption).",13,False
f0915e6,"Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to implement the APEC environmental goods list, which lists goods on which APEC members will reduce tariffs by the end of 2015. In 2014, this included briefings by CITES, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). New Zealand briefed the CTE on the jointly organized Parties meeting held in Lima in December 2014.",13,False
2f0bec2,"Ideally, ESD-related professional development would be undertaken alongside complementary initiatives including those mentioned above, as well as curricular and examination reforms, linking training on ESD with re-certification or promotional pathways, school improvement programmes, ESD training for principals and so on. Additionally, such professional development could come with a requirement that participating teachers pass on their training in their home schools to help expand the reach of ESD training when resources are limited. The structure is flexible and can be formalised to include scheduled topics, chairpersons and presentations.",13,False
025a356,"Since the late 1990s, the Government of Ethiopia has had clear aspirations for broad-based sustainable development and poverty reduction, as evidenced in a series of strategies such as the Sustainable Development for Poverty Reduction Programme (SDPRP, 2000-2004), the Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP, 2005 to 2009), and the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP, 2010-2014). The effects on the economy of the first two strategies were judged to be very significant, with strong economic growth, poverty reduced, employment increased, and some exports flourishing (MoFED, 2002,2005). Its clear link to the GTP, notably its reassertion of the need to achieve middle-income status, means that it builds on previous decisions about where national development is headed.",13,False
c5418d1,"Many of the diverse carbon-related investment ideas in the CRGE are practicable and financially sound. While such ideas have not yet reaped rewards in terms of significant climate funding, they have improved the confidence of Ethiopia’s bilateral donors, some of whom have supported the CRGE process, but more of whom are considering ways to help Ethiopia address the evident implementation and capacity challenges. While the current focus of the CRGE is usefully tactical, if the singular focus on achieving MIC status and GHG reduction were to continue beyond an initial carefully-monitored phase, that focus could bias against future options for wellbeing. Sustainable development demands, ultimately, that linked systemic problems are tackled with systemic improvements to institutions and governance, and not just with investment projects. It requires changing the way that routine government expenditure is channelled, and not just with attracting new sources of finance. It demands attention to the range of environmental opportunities, and not just with GHGs.",13,True
2498d06,"These indicators are likely to have a micro-coverage in terms of geographical exposure (e.g. few communities) and life spans (few years), and to be specific to the programme in question. The data needed to implement this approach are project data and information (often gathered via project-specific surveys). The research concludes that monitoring and evaluation frameworks should combine qualitative, quantitative and binary indicators.",13,False
d152206,"Significantly fewer focus only on adaptation (4 initiatives) or mitigation (1 initiative) (see Appendix B). Several of these approaches have been found to contain various benefits in relation to climate change and agriculture, e.g. increased mitigation of emissions or larger adaptive capacity. These benefits are identified in peer-reviewed literature, and based on local experiences, on-the-ground tests, and various evaluations of such agricultural approaches and practices5. Success stories of CSA include water harvesting in the Sahel and Drought-Tolerant Maize for African farmers, the purpose of which is to make crops more climate change resilience and mitigate the GHG emissions related to agricultural production (Neate, 2013, FAO, 2017b).",13,True
840533c,"Encouraging systematic reporting on climate finance at a disaggregated level (such as activity-level information) could also help improve transparency, as well as accessibility of information. Reporting in the form of a standardised database with common variables and classifications (such as exchange rates) would also help to improve consistency. In this context, the UNFCCC could usefully draw on the experience from existing statistical systems on international flows, such as the OECD DAC.",13,True
9d45043,"This is because it may be difficult to ensure the collection of project-level information from the ultimate beneficiary of these funds (Caruso and Ellis, 2013). Such methods seek to test whether theories of change are leading to observable results and can help to overcome some of the challenges outlined with regards to causality, baselines and attribution. The design of RCTs (explained more fully in Duflo et. This allows a given policy or programme to be judged against the performance of randomly selected, similar, and actual cases that have not been subject to the intervention as opposed to assumed baselines of how the intervention’s subjects would have performed in its absence.",13,False
d66f7b4,"The government announced £1 billion of capital funding for the first full-scale CCS demonstration project in the UK. The government has also committed to a further three demonstration projects on gas- and coal-fired power stations. However, final details of the funding mechanism for these three additional projects are yet to be announced. Released in draft form in March, the Carbon Plan is a government-wide carbon reduction plan, including domestic and international emissions.",13,True
1208c9e,"The IIC mentioned above has identified an unexpected benefit related to their programming and hiring practices, which gives some preference to applicants from local indigenous communities. What IIC has observed is that in addition to individual benefits related directly to their programme involvement, a meaningful number of these former staff and students have subsequently gone on to influential positions in their communities. With such relationships between the centre and nearby community leaders established over time, IIC is in a very good position to support broad and powerful community-based ESD within traditional channels. This programme has drawn participants from school-based eco-clubs which are common in the country, and is part of a tiered approach to ECHO’s work with communities that also includes the establishment of eco-teams involving adults and community leaders to support student and youth activities (Kaieteur News 2010).",13,False
e1f8d9e,"This work stands out because of its emphasis on literature, culture and citizenship, as opposed to the more directly environmental approach to ESD common in much of the Caribbean. Also notable in this regard is an undergraduate course in teaching Caribbean poetry, which was designed in collaboration with Cambridge University, and integrates a sustainability focus through a strand on literature and the environment. In addition to these courses, the university is also exploring ESD possibilities campus-wide.",13,False
aaad9ee,"The Agreement lists possible vehicles through which an adaptation communication could be submitted (Article 7.11), while leaving the form and timing of an adaptation communication open. The Paris Agreement also stresses that adaptation reporting should avoid creating any additional burden for developing country Parties. At a national level, identifying and collating information could help a country communicate its priority needs and actions, identify progress towards national goals, highlight the need for international support, and better co-ordinate and communicate actions and funding within the country.",13,True
443b9dc,"This paper focuses on how national and subnational governments can align subnational financial flows to transition towards low-carbon, resilient and inclusive cities. The paper is a contribution from the OECD Champion Mayors for Inclusive Growth initiative and to the OECD Programme on Subnational Finance and Investment. It was drafted by Dorothee Allain - Dupre, Isabelle Chatty, Marissa Plouin, and Sena Segbedzi.",13,True
34a1846,"The Policy Forum brought together policy-makers and experts from 25 OECD countries, from international organisations and from the private sector to discuss progress, common challenges and successes in the development of national adaptation strategies (OECD, 2012b). The original version included additional European countries which are excluded from the updated table, and also did not include four OECD countries (Chile, Israel, Luxembourg and Turkey) which are included in this analysis. Most OECD members are Annex I countries, with the exception of Chile, Israel, Korea, Mexico. Turkey is an Annex I country, but has only published one NC. The assessment of the scope of discussion is based on the level of attention paid to the topic, classified as: i) extensive, ii) limited, or iii) lacking.",13,True
b6ed780,"They focus on actively engaging the communities, providing space for innovation and ensuring that higher level policies and plans are adapted to local settings. The national policy framework can foster local innovation when it provides an enabling environment, for example, through the provision of social protection and regulation of market actors. Achieving the SDGs will depend on identifying the right policy mixes and governance approaches that can combine progressive public policies and environmental regulation with local initiatives and innovations in a way that promotes transformative change toward equity and sustainability. It will also depend on ensuring that the promotion of technological innovation, private sector investment and multistakeholder partnership is in line with considerations for social inclusion, participation and empowerment (chapter 7).",13,False
c7426f5,"Country ownership is a principle of the Busan Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation building on the Paris Declaration and the Accra Agenda for Action. While the past 15 years have tended to separate development finance to achieve the MDGs from climate finance to achieve the goals of the UNFCCC, Agenda 2030 and the Paris Agreement place climate action into the context of sustainable development. In addition, the emphasis in all the 2015 outcomes on country ownership provides an opportunity to increase coherence at national level, especially if partner countries are supported to strengthen human and institutional capacity.",13,True
58bfc43,"Teachers may learn about ESD and related topics, and may be highly motivated during training activities, but upon returning to their classrooms they struggle to find the time or means to effectively implement what was learned. This is disheartening and inefficient. As attractive as training activities may be to donors as a means of targeting large numbers, and as a means of disseminating ESD knowledge and skills, the surrounding context of such training and the anticipated classroom implementation need to be given serious consideration. In the SEP approach, training is not conceived of as a one-off event expected to change teaching practices on its own, but rather as a component of a broader system of supports and incentives which exerts a positive force on teaching practices over time.",13,False
6187b5b,"In contrast, the dominant market-liberal rationality sees human and natural resources as production factors to achieve economic growth as the main pathway toward welfare. As noted above, such an approach has been associated with adverse social and environmental impacts.25 Does the 2030 Agenda hold the potential for a profound transformation toward a more progressive and rights-based eco-social approach that would shift the normative hierarchy for decision making, as discussed in chapter 7? Many lower and middle income countries object to the 2°C goal, especially low-lying small island states that stress the significant risks and impacts they already face at lower levels of global warming.",13,True
17a0858,"All Annex II Parties are also members of the OECD DAC, as are four further Annex I Parties, and as such use Rio markers to “tag” the amount of bilateral ODA used for climate change mitigation and adaptation, and report this information under the CRS. All EU member countries (many of whom are non-Annex II) are beginning to report information on climate finance under EU monitoring regulations (as outlined above), as well as to the OECD DAC. The transparency framework set out in Article 13 of the Paris Agreement also provides for voluntary reporting of information on the provision of support by “other Parties”.",13,True
4c85cd0,"For instance, Jordan’s INDC states that their mitigation and adaptation measures should be linked and also aligned with specific Sustainable Development Goals. This approach could help countries streamline their effort for monitoring and reporting given that a number of indicators to monitor progress towards SDGs and their targets might overlap with those needed for adaptation. Some countries use different timescales for different sectors (e.g. Guinea-Bissau’s and Lao People’s Republic), while about 40 countries’ adaptation components of INDCs have no mention of timeframes. Some INDCs have expressed that they will use existing systems to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of adaptation actions (e.g. Zambia).",13,True
bfacae6,"Portfolio website, www.gcpf.lu/portfolio.html (accessed 24 October 2016). Project Portfolio website, www.gcpf.lu/portfolio.html (accessed 24 October 2016). Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP)”, webpage, www.ifad.org/en/topic/asap/tags/climate change/2782790 (accessed 24 October 2016).",13,False
4ee4c4e,"Ethiopia's first sectoral resilience strategy, which focuses on agriculture, revealed that 38 of 41 priority climate resilience options are already being carried out to some extent. This indicates that most early resilience efforts will concentrate on scaling-up and enhancing the resilience of existing measures, rather than crafting new ones. As Ethiopia's future climate conditions are highly uncertain, it will be crucial to adopt an iterative and flexible approach to building resilience. At present, Ethiopia primarily relies on disaster response financing from official development assistance.",13,True
d857b0c,"The integrated nature of the public policies is based (among other factors) on a correct definition of the beneficiaries in socioeconomic and territorial terms, which depends on the quality of disaggregated data available at the household and territorial levels, to be able to distinguish zones or settlements. The institutional framework needs the capacity to identify households and localities that are highly exposed and vulnerable to disasters, in an efficient and planned way, so that they can be included among the priority objectives of public policies aimed at increasing resilience to such phenomena among people and communities. Development Policy Review, vol.",13,True
edbe51e,"In coastal areas, the challenge often exists of preventing the destruction of sand dunes owing to the construction of tourism facilities close to the water. The degradation of sand dunes not only alters the coastal ecosystem but, in the long run, also increases those facilities’ exposure to storms and water rise (Magnan, 2014). This situation entails a typical tradeoff between economic development and environmental challenges. Ideally, an integrated approach would attenuate the impact of the trade-off by limiting habitat degradation and consequently the collateral effect on assets in terms of their exposure to climate-related hazards. Such an approach may not completely eliminate the trade-off, but, by taking into account the negative effects, it can put in place compensation mechanisms, such as for protecting marine ecosystems so as to allow them to maintain their natural resilience and adaptive capacities, and then ensuring that their buffering function against waves is maintained (ibid.).",13,True
d020e7d,"By 2080, in Africa, an increase from 5 to 8 per cent in arid and semi-arid land is projected under a range of climate scenarios. While identifying particularly vulnerable groups globally and at country level remains challenging, it is particularly important for policymaking directed towards building climate resilience. People living in low-lying coastal areas, drylands, and mountainous and remote areas and population groups whose livelihoods rely on forest products are particularly at risk. Yet, basic information on population size, socioeconomic characteristics and risk factors which could help identify those groups remains in the form of very rough approximations. Some of those groups are difficult to reach owing to their geographical location, but the lack of basic information is also associated with an insufficiency in the resources for producing statistics at the level of disaggregation required to identify specific population groups.",13,True
4ac10e9,Improving access to stable and adequate sources of finance for adaptation and contributing to the building of the information systems needed to guide policymaking for climate resilience are two concrete actions where greater international cooperation is needed. Public domestic and international efforts are needed to mobilize sufficient resources and provide incentives to the private sector to invest in adaptation. This is especially important for building the resilience and adaptive capacity of the most marginalized areas and population groups.,13,True
c2beb5a,"The discussion covers a variety of international and national actors, including development finance institutions, international climate funds, governments and relevant government agencies. Data regarding global finance flows are mostly drawn from the Climate Policy Initiative (CPI) reports as they represent the most comprehensive source of such flows to date. Second, the paper focuses on the regional landscape of climate finance in the Asia-Pacific region, with particular attention given to active climate funds, multilateral development banks, the distribution of climate finance across countries, and national-level initiatives.",13,True
d822e51,"However, the ability of an intervention to mobilise or leverage financing does not necessarily imply effectiveness in a broader sense. For instance, some analysis has highlighted the possibility that high leverage or mobilisation rates may indicate a strong perception of commercial viability amongst private investors who may have invested without public intervention (Stadelmann et al., In addition to its narrow focus, one of the difficulties in using financial mobilisation as an indicator in assessing effectiveness is that there are wide differences in how mobilisation and leverage are defined and measured between different institutions (see Caruso and Ellis, 2013 for a more detailed discussion). Even in the absence of methodological differences, mobilisation rates will vary significantly across financial instruments, technologies, sectors, and countries (UN AGF, 2010, Smallridge, et al.,",13,False
5a0f5ba,"Regions and municipalities are also responsible for the implementation of much of Finland’s National Adaptation Strategy, and approximately a third of regions/municipalities had an adaptation strategy by 2012 (Luhtala, 2012). Some climate funds have specific “windows” for funding local adaptation actions. For example, the Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund (BCCRF) includes a USD 10.4 million window for a “Community Climate Change Fund” which is to provide grants for community-based projects (BCCRF, 2012).",13,True
56cc12b,"In response, the city embarked on a resilience-building project which integrates climate vulnerability assessments and micro planning and implementation. It was designed, implemented and monitored using a community-led bottom-up approach which began with the identification of climate vulnerabilities. Some key lessons have been derived from that experience.",13,True
f2e5ed6,"Lastly, an information and awareness campaign has been designed, ""Mexican Tourism Facing the Challenge of Climate Change"". Potential barriers to implementation are seen in the resistance of the private sector to invest in energy efficiency and to accept the decarbonisation of the economy as an attractive goal. To this end, policy instruments are currently kept under review with regard to their potential to reduce GHG emissions and their impact on business, as well as possibilities for implementation.",13,True
61f9e95,"Through the Tonga Education Sector Programme (TESP), for example, Tonga’s Ministry of Education, Women’s Affairs and Culture undertook its first ever approach to sector-wide strategic planning, resulting in a number of substantive changes to approaches and policies. These activities all reinforce the view that ESD is not something that one party subjects another to. Rather, it is a process of ongoing learning and iteration whereby all involved should grow and adapt as a result.",13,False
11d0d8c,"Given the variety of technologies, sectors, and scales of technology-transfer interventions, it would be difficult to have a single meaningful indicator that could be aggregated across multiple projects. For instance, the Global Environment Facility’s (GEF) indicator for technology-transfer interventions is qualitative in nature, focusing on capturing the type and maturity of technologies that are being transferred. Mitigation-focused interventions generally seek to reduce GHG emissions directly (e.g. by improving fuel combustion efficiencies) or indirectly and/or in the longer-term (e.g. by increasing awareness about low-GHG technologies). Projects seeking to increase adaptive capacity and resilience can take a number of forms (e.g. awareness and education programmes, institutional reforms, physical infrastructure projects) and have results that accrue at local, regional, or global scales and over different time horizons.",13,True
7a8aa63,"Tonga’s Ministry of Education, Women’s Affairs and Culture (MoEWAC) is working to seize this opportunity, getting involved in national and regional media industry-oriented workshops, in order to foster opportunities for co-operation. The ministry has worked with local media to educate them on agendas such as EFA, the MDGs and the UNDESD, and one representative has indicated that the media has become a ‘catalyst and advocate for local co-operation and contributions to sustainable development, especially at the grassroots and community level’. None of these associations are commonly made with mainstream or mass media sources.",13,False
32c2606,"This handbook aims to reduce the impacts of natural disasters on local coastal tourism communities. The handbook's approach builds on UNEP's Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level (APELL) process, designed to create public awareness of hazards and to ensure that communities and emergency services are adequately trained and prepared to respond.",13,True
328a410,"These include: a strong commitment at both the national and international levels to support and mobilise private investment for green growth, policies and regulations to provide a level playing field for more environment-friendly investments, policies to encourage more environmentally responsible corporate behaviour, an institutional capacity to design, implement and monitor policies to foster green growth objectives, financial mechanisms for green investment, and policies to support private sector involvement in green projects (Corfee-Morlot et al., The targeted use of official development finance is particularly relevant to set the right incentives (e.g. fiscal, economic, legislative, etc.) In particular, since some green sectors operate in highly regulated markets (e.g. energy), development finance could support opening up markets for private actors or help set regulatory environment conducive for private investments in these sectors.",13,False
a06826c,"Since river basin flood hazards are frequently transnational, these efforts need to be re-energized and consolidated into a regional warning mechanism. For this purpose there have already been a number of pilots that can be scaled up and replicated. In the Philippines, for example, with support from Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), a landslide early warning system was successfully set up 2012 in the municipality of Saint Bernard in the province of Southern Leyte.",13,True
5f4b9c2,"Several underscored the importance of bilateral, regional and international cooperation in this area. Some members stressed that initiatives to counter illegal logging should be consistent with WTO disciplines, scientifically based, and not constitute unnecessary barriers to trade. Concerns were raised on the implementation costs of such initiatives and the need for capacity building in developing countries to build awareness and improve enforcement of laws to combat illegal logging.",13,False
42852bf,"Further, a pilot project for a new technology may be implemented and run efficiently (and could therefore be judged to be effective at a project level), but does not meet its goal of being replicated at scale (and is therefore less effective when viewed from a national or sectoral level). The inputs to an intervention can be financial, human (e.g. information or labour), or material goods that help to achieve the strategic objectives of the intervention. Decisions on appropriate inputs will depend both on the strategic objectives of the intervention as well as local context and needs.",13,False
89a1372,"This was agreed to by more than 130 countries and lays out agreed principles for effective development finance that also cover climate-related aid: these principles relate to country ownership, alignment, harmonisation, results and mutual accountability. The subsequent Busan Partnership on Effective Development Co-operation (2011), agreed to by 150 countries, outlines the importance of climate finance as well as extending the scope of these principles beyond aid to cover development finance and development co-operation more broadly. These include both general principles as well as those developed in the context of funds established by the UNFCCC process such as the Green Climate Fund and the Global Environment Facility.",13,True
001018b,"Bilateral DFIs are usually owned by donor governments, source their core capital from official development funds, and have access to government guarantees. Some examples include Proparco (France), DEG (Germany) and FMO (Netherlands). The multilateral equivalents of DFIs are the private sector arms or departments of multilateral development banks (such as the International Finance Corporation under the World Bank Group, and non-sovereign operations under the regional development banks).",13,False
d8c5930,"Johansson de Silva, Kokko and Norberg (2015) describes the ideal ‘win-win-win’ relationship in multi stakeholder partnerships, and the different strengths donors, the private sector and civil society bring to them, based on a review of Sida’s private sector collaboration programmes (Table 2.1). The private sector is not monolithic, hence development co-operation approaches to private sector engagement need to be tailored to specific private sector beneficiaries (e.g. multinational companies, utilities, local SMEs, commercial banks) and contexts, taking into account potential multipliers which can contribute in disseminating information, approaches and state of the art concepts (e.g. business associations, chambers, business developers, industrial zone management). For instance, many development co-operation providers focus on greening SMEs, either directly or through the use of financial intermediaries (e.g. local commercial banks, private equity funds, state-owned banks, national development banks).",13,False
08a2287,"Sometimes, this is explicitly referred to as “effectiveness”, e.g. in the context of the Global Environment Facility and the Green Climate Fund. Sometimes, it is not explicitly referred to as effectiveness, e.g. in the context of achieving a balance between climate finance for mitigation and adaptation in the Fast Start Finance period. Within the development community, more than 150 countries (as well as IFIs and other international organisations) agreed to the Busan Partnership on Effective Development Co-operation in 2011. This declaration applies to development finance (i.e. broader than the previously-agreed Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, which just covers ODA), The Busan Partnership focuses on increased co-operation between donor and partner countries and their institutions involved in providing, channelling and using climate finance - and aligning interventions with partners’ priorities.",13,True
45bd285,"The Paris Agreement calls for a balance between adaptation and mitigation finance and establishes an Adaptation Goal, raising the profile of adaptation and encouraging developed countries to increase support for adaptation, particularly amongst the most vulnerable developing countries. This emphasis on LDCs and SIDS is a recognition of the needs of countries that are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. In the case of Small Island Developing States (SIDS), strong growth has been registered in the volume of official climate-related development finance received over the past decade, reaching an all-time high of 15% of total ODA they received in 2013 (OECD, 2015g). The share of climate finance targeting adaptation activities - which support many key development challenges facing SIDS - has progressively increased as well.",13,True
19f9cfc,"Examples of capacity elements for each of the three levels are summarised in Table 2.2. A Practical Guide for Planning, implementing, and Assessing Capacity Building of HIV/AIDS Monitoring and Evaluation Systems, Office of the Global AIDS Coordinator, United States Government, Washington, DC. The objective of the assessment was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the government’s approach to MfDR. The assessment found that there was a significant lack of capacity to monitor and evaluate public policies in all sectors. Further, the majority of sectors lacked the capacity to analyse statistical data and to use monitoring and evaluation findings to inform decision-making processes (Government of Ghana, 2012).",13,False
c2dd835,"The Paris Agreement requires all Parties to undertake and communicate national mitigation and adaptation measures to respond to the threat of climate change. In addition, developed countries are required to provide and report on financial assistance, technology transfer and capacity-building support to developing-country Parties to the Agreement. For their part, developing countries are expected to provide information on the support needed and received.",13,True
b23624c,"However, recognising that developing and implementing a national framework can be time-consuming and resource intensive, countries may choose to initially focus on aspects that can be monitored within existing limits of data availability and monitoring and evaluation capacity. Over time, the coverage and scope may gradually expand (GIZ, 2013). For monitoring and evaluation to contribute to learning, it is beneficial if they are based on demand for the information by those closely linked to policy-making processes.",13,False
61e0cb3,"For initiatives where web and literature searches yielded insufficient results, organizations and experts responsible for the initiative were asked for supplementary information. As mentioned in the introduction to this report, the focus is on developing country regions, notably Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Throughout the report, three other regions, South Asia (SA), South East Asia (SEA) and Latin America (LA), are also analysed.",13,False
8fd7dfa,"According to recent data, costs from major flood events will likely be counted in the billions of dollars with potential serious impacts on national GDP (World Bank, 2010), as well as on the lives of poorer and marginalized communities, in particular. The international community, multilateral development banks and United Nations funds and programmes are working to support delivery of and direct access to existing and pledged international climate finance. However, international flows alone will not be sufficient to meet the growing demand for climate mitigation and adaptation finance. In the absence of an internationally acknowledged definition of climate finance, in this paper, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) definition is used, which is “local, national or transnational financing, which may be drawn from public, private and alternative sources of financing” (UNFCCC, 2014a) and which target low-carbon and climate-resilient development.",13,True
0b3cb03,"Security measures (against lightning, flooding, theft, vandalism, and so forth) are to be taken into account and the stations must, of course, be able to withstand severe meteorological conditions. The cost of providing systems capable of operating under all foreseen circumstances at an automatic station is prohibitive, it is essential that, before specifying or designing an observation station, a thorough understanding of the working environment anticipated for the observation station be obtained. At an early stage of planning, there should be a detailed analysis of the relative importance of the meteorological and technical requirements so that sites can be chosen and approved as suitable before significant installation investment is made.",14,False
97c2584,"Today, the Nordic Region is one of the most digitized in the world with the most advanced digital public service. Despite this commitment however remote areas experience challenges when it comes to health care and service maintenance for remote and sparsely populated areas. Digital health solutions may provide one solution to growing social inequality in the area of health, as described in the chapter of health and welfare.",14,False
8927d3d,"Information often exists but is very fragmented, inaccessible (and often lost) or collected according to different standards. In many cases, the information is collected in isolation and without keys for connecting pieces with one another. This constitutes a major challenge to the implementation of cross-sectoral management as called for by the BGI. Such integration also entails the exchange of expertise and related methods and tools, while catering for particular requirements of aquatic resources.",14,True
470769a,"As a fact-based management approach, its successful implementation will require timely and reliable cross-disciplinary information in order to establish baselines, monitor changes, and support decision-making towards social, economic and environmental sustainability. Data availability and quality issues often constrain the accuracy of assessment results. Moreover, management action lags behind assessment conclusions.",14,False
8d1410c,"This is discussed later in the report (Chapters 5.6 and 7.3). The Convention also requires Parties to: 'ensure that the generation of hazardous wastes and other wastes are minimised.’ The Rotterdam Convention covers the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade13, and forms another important restraint on the unregulated trade in waste.",14,False
6fe75f2,"For example, in Equatorial Guinea a dramatic increase in trafficking of women and children for domestic and sexual exploitation was associated with these industries (US Department of State 2011). In addition to fishery and livelihood issues, oil spills have highly gendered health implications. Following the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska in 1989, women were particularly subject to high levels of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, as were Native Americans of both sexes (Palinkas ef al.",14,False
907f039,"Women and girls are subject to human trafficking and forced labour on board these vessels, primarily for sexual exploitation rather than as fishing labourers. Women are also reported to be victims of trafficking in the land-based fish processing sector (ILO 2013). When fishing rights are transferred or eliminated in these ways, the indigenous and traditional fishing rights of both women and men can be easily overlooked or misunderstood (Coope SoliDar R.L/ICSF 2015, Madrigal-Cordero and Solis-Rivera 2012). "" Ocean grabbing"" has gender-differentiated effects (Bennet ef al. Groups who are already marginalized, including women, are especially vulnerable to ""grabbing"", moreover, women fishers and gleaners whose work is concentrated in foreshore and reef areas are often within sight of communities and open to surveillance and regulation for IUU ""violations"" in ways that other types of fishing is not (Bennet et al. They have primary responsibilities in many countries for performing jobs such as smoking, salting and drying, as well as selling fish and seafood products in local markets.",14,True
9c982e4,"Courses of this kind aim to address the need to rapidly develop a general understanding of emerging issues where there is limited capacity. Introduction level and general courses are then superseded by more specialised technical courses and /or integration into vocational and masters training courses. Multi-stage courses combine on-the-job-learning and assignments with one or more intensive training sessions, often involving exposure to projects or other real-life management situations that provide the experience participants need to build their own capabilities. Participants then complete assignments and projects based on their workplace (or volunteer) experience (Coley and others, 2002).",14,False
4d50c9f,"Secondly, they suggest that developing countries depend on international scientific assistance, which has its own frequently changing investment agenda. There are also large disparities in key socio-economic indicators that can influence R&D potential such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which varies from US$ 592 000 million for South Africa to less than US$ 1 000 million for Comoros. According to the World Bank (The World Bank, undated) R&D expenditure (per cent of GDP) is defined as the current and capital expenditures (both public and private) on creative work undertaken systematically to increase knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture, and society, and the use of knowledge for new applications. R&D covers basic research, applied research, and experimental development.",14,False
a8bc1b6,"This is seen to be necessary in order to devise integrated strategies and policies that foster synergies across different goals and explicitly address tensions and potential tradeoffs among them. The editions of the UN Global Sustainable Development Report published in 2015 and 2016 adopted the SDGs as an integrated network of goals as their basic framework (United Nations, 2015 and 2016a). Generic network maps of the SDGs were proposed in Le Blanc (2015). Systematic lists of relationships among the targets under one SDG and other SDGs have been published for SDG6 (UN-Water, 2016), SDG4 (Vladimirova and Le Blanc, 2016), and similar work is ongoing in other SDG areas (ICSU, forthcoming).",14,False
35be593,"Because of the complex dimensionality of the interactions among the targets when viewed socially, economically and environmentally, the arrows in Figure 1 should be taken as illustrative but not definitive. However, in many cases the “real life” impacts of what is done in a target area on other target areas is variable, and can be positive or negative. Some targets are mostly at the “receiving end” of the interlinkages and are affected by many of the other targets. They include targets 14.2 (sustainable management of marine ecosystems), 14.4 (restoration of fish stocks), and 14.7 increased benefits for SIDS and LDCs. On the other hand, targets 14.a (science and technology) and I4.c (implementation of international law) have the potential to affect most of the other targets.",14,True
f4af39d,"The ocean has been a catalyst for regionalism. These have profound, damaging effects on our ocean and its ecosystems. But we also see that the ocean has an incredible ability to adapt and regenerate if it is given the chance. This requires rethinking the way we sustainably manage our oceanic resources. We recognize that there must be transformational change in attitude and behaviour. We must come together if we are to succeed as citizens, communities, governments and countries.",14,True
bd513fd,"Ironically, this provided a favourable opportunity for Cambodian women fish traders in the Tonle Sap region to engage in cross-border fish trade. They had an advantage over male traders, enjoying greater mobility as they did not risk being considered war combatants. In the late 1990s, as the war subsided, control over fish trade moved into the hands of government agencies and the police.",14,False
ad32182,"It is the first year since 2006 that no stocks managed solely by the Australian Government have been classified as subject to overfishing. The statement is the first step in fulfilling the Australian Government’s commitment to work with industry to develop a national aquaculture strategy. Parties to the agreement focused on developing foundation documents, including rules of procedure and financial regulations to help ensure the long-term conservation and sustainable use of non-highly migratory fish stocks in the high seas of the southern Indian Ocean.",14,True
7753a7c,"The Fishery moved to total allowable catches allocated as individual transferable quotas on 1 July 2010. Responsibility for managing these waters now lies with the commonwealth department of infrastructure, transport, regional development and local government. The department of infrastructure has entered into a service delivery arrangement with the western Australian department of fisheries for the management of these inshore fisheries.",14,False
2278c36,"The average FTEs per unit remained unchanged from 2010 at 37. While the main reason for the contraction seen in the number of sea fish processing units and FTE jobs was ceased operations, other common reasons include reorientation towards processing salmon (as salmon processing is not included in seafood processing data) and processing no longer being the main income generating activity of the business. Smaller units (1-10 FTE band) account for only 6% of industry employment, whilst representing 45% of total processing units. In contrast, the largest units (101+ FTEs) provide nearly 50% of employment from only 7% of all business units.",14,False
20882d8,"This is the largest individual category accounting for 14% of all fish purchases. Sales of salmon remained fairly constant (+6.2%) since 2007 and consistently make up around 8% of total fish purchases. Purchases of herring and other blue fish fell -30% on 2007. Whilst purchases have fallen, expenditure on fish has remained almost unchanged. Expenditure has increased by 1%, from GBP 1.16 per person per week in 2007 to GBP 1.17 in 2010 (GDP 1.20 in 2011 ). In comparison, the expenditure on takeaway fish fell 7.5% over the same period to GBP 0.17 per person per week .",14,False
4f92377,"Additionally, owners with TQL allocation are required to pay annually a specific tax calculated according to the amount of quota allocated to the owner. . Satellite Positioning System is required for small-scale vessels (more than 15m length), purse-seine (more than 12m length) and transport vessels. This will help enforce the first mile fishing zone restrictions.",14,True
796c58e,"Most nets are lost in deeper fishing areas between 200 to 800 metres, but also in cod fisheries in relatively shallow waters. However, the TAC system for cod (Northeast Arctic and Coastal) does not restrict the overall catches of coastal cod. The Norwegian coastal cod north is recognised as a stock complex. Genetic studies indicate that some of the spawning components along the coast could be local stocks, more or less isolated from coastal cod in neighbouring areas. The challenge for the management is, therefore, both to keep the total stock complex at a productive level and, in addition, to give protection to potentially vulnerable local stocks.",14,True
7312e23,"Most of the expansion is projected in the RoW group, in particular Sub-Saharan Africa. After peaking (before 2030), global food crop area is projected to decline, particularly in North America, Brazil, Russia, South Asia and China. This is based on the assumptions of slowly growing populations in the OECD and a shrinking population in Russia and China, stabilising diets (i.e. maximum caloric intake being reached) in most OECD and BRIICS countries, and increasing crop yields due to technological improvements (for a further discussion of the agricultural land projections under the Baseline scenario, see Chapter 2).",14,False
8a722fc,"It then looks at trends in several indicators of biodiversity - species abundance (e.g. mean species abundance or MSA), threatened species, forest area (deforestation) and marine fish stocks - and the implications of business-as-usual trends continuing to the year 2050 under the OECD Environmental Outlook Baseline scenario. The chapter provides an overview of the different policy instruments available for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, ranging from regulations to market-driven approaches, such as payments for ecosystem services (PES). Some more ambitious policy scenarios are examined - such as the implications of meeting the Aichi Biodiversity Target under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to expand the global protected area network to at least 17% of terrestrial land by 2020.",14,True
af44f32,"Overall, the relative impact of land-use change and management on MSA loss is projected to decrease. While expansion of food crop production and live-stock farming is projected to cause about half of the further MSA loss in the RoW between 2010 and 2030, it is not projected to be a major driver of further loss in the OECD countries or the BRIICS. Instead of agricultural land expansion, land abandonment is projected to occur in several regions, allowing considerable area for ecosystem recovery and regeneration to take place. These areas will however bear the effects of “former land use” for several decades after land abandonment. Together these are referred to as forestry (but not deforestation, as that is included under land-use change).",14,False
eb3655a,"Software tools such as Marxan and MarZone which aid systematic reserve design have been used in several cases but could be adopted more widely. Monitoring both ecological and socio-economic data is important, initially to define the baseline, as well as regularly thereafter to assess trends in performance over time. This has often not been undertaken as rigorously as needed, and challenges encountered include lack of sufficient human and financial resources, equipment and infrastructure.",14,False
a727f04,"Moreover, management of the marine EEZ is fraught with difficulties that are hampering its effective implementation. The chapter suggests three pathways to the urgent improvements required: better integration of economic analysis and economic tools, innovation in governance structures and processes, and greater use of science and technology, in particular in gathering better data. These include a plethora of different agencies looking after different activities, gaps in the governance framework, weak compliance and enforcement, new and emerging uses, and lack of an equity framework for exploitation of genetic resources.",14,False
368f5c8,"Third, the approach allows the interdependencies between the different sectors to be explicitly modelled, to the extent that data permit. It compares rates of change of value added and employment in ocean-based industries between 2010 and 2030. The compound annual growth rate for value added of the ocean-based industries combined between 2010 and 2030 is estimated at 3.45%, broadly in line with the anticipated compound annual growth rate for value added of the global economy. However, the total growth of employment (approximately 30%) in the ocean-based industries over the 20-year period is expected to outpace markedly the overall growth rate of the global workforce (approximately 20%).",14,False
978bb0f,"Second, the entity in charge of examining appeals must be independent of the micro-institution that is responsible for making or implementing decisions. Three possible mechanisms of appeal are commonly used: mediation, based on the common agreement to look for an acceptable settlement (e.g. through a conciliation commission), arbitration, which transfers decisions to independent parties, and courts. Costs tend to be higher for courts than for arbitration, and higher for arbitration than mediation. Other characteristics of institutions that are generally desirable are the capacity to coordinate and delegate, clear assignment of rights and responsibilities, involvement of stakeholders, methods of appeal, and capacity to promote good norms of behaviour (Table 2.2).",14,False
cc95b84,"To be effective, institutions should be able to incorporate information from different sources, evaluate the relative quality of that information, set goals that are based on evidence, and be adaptable when facts change. There is a difficult trade-off between strictly detailed procedures which are easy to communicate and control but introduce a lot of rigidities that may significantly increase costs (including long delays, interminable negotiations, repeated votes) and flexible rules that facilitate adaptation but could allow the decision process to become arbitrary. Public access to procedures, including for parties not directly involved, is one way to reduce the sharpness of this trade-off by making rigid systems run more smoothly and flexible ones less arbitrary.",14,False
1978289,"Contribution funding under AIMAP was intended to enable recipients to plan, manage and complete projects that would achieve these strategic outcomes. The AIMAP was a nationally competitive process with calls for proposals issued on an annual basis, and based on priorities established in consultation with provinces, territories and sector stakeholders. The program focused on one year duration projects with demonstrable industry-wide benefits implemented by the end of the project.",14,False
1d1c84a,"Further, an active rental market can help reveal the value of both the rights and the resource to users. Policy makers can minimise the risk of criticism by ensuring that the initial rights allocation is perceived as fair and that the rental market is transparent and accessible to all. However, proper impact assessments (which themselves contain uncertainties) may be too expensive compared with the reform’s overall budget. As an alternative, managers can draw lessons from successful implementation of market mechanisms in other jurisdictions.",14,False
71d92b9,"It also remains poorly understood. This is particularly true in the wildlife sector, where studies have tended to focus on conservation impacts rather than on socio-economic effects. For example, small-scale logging by local communities (which is deemed illegal in many countries) can provide better returns than would employment in large-scale timber operations (which are often deemed legal).",14,False
7149a8a,"The killing of just a few would not only represent a great loss in itself, but could upset the chances of survival of whole packs, such is the dependence of wolves on the stability of their social structure. For all four large carnivores, areas have been designated where the species are allowed to reproduce.21 In other parts of the species’ range, no reproduction is allowed. Since 1994, livestock holders have been compensated for losses of livestock to predators.",14,False
ae87e68,"Section 2.4 considers the challenges of climate change. Its effects will be larger and more rapid in the North Atlantic, and NORA’s natural-resource-based economies will be particularly vulnerable. In addition, the region is characterised by a dispersed settlement pattern, migration from smaller to bigger locations and population ageing.",14,False
37b4c66,Citizens (or stakeholders groups) signal their policy demand or preferences through various channels such as lobbying or voting choices. The higher the costs involved in signalling this demand the lower the level of effective demand. Likewise the government’s willingness to supply the policy favour will increase with increasing political benefits that would accrue to the government. Equilibrium is found at the point where the demand for a concession matches the willingness to supply it given the respective perceptions of costs and benefits.,14,False
0492faf,"Fernandez and Rodrik (1991) demonstrate that there is a bias towards the status quo (and hence against efficiency-enhancing reforms) whenever some (or all) of the individual gainers or losers from reform cannot be identified beforehand. Glazer (2003) points out that once the reform has been implemented, the pattern of beneficiaries becomes clear and there may be support for the new status quo, despite initial opposition due to the uncertainty surrounding the distribution of benefits (next section). Loss aversion can therefore help to create a status quo bias, making it difficult both to introduce a policy (and also to reverse a policy once it is adopted). However, the long term durability of reforms cannot be taken for granted.",14,False
72f7f67,"It also discusses the development of indicators, reference points and risk indices for assessing fisheries affected by climate changes. In addition, it demonstrates an approach to evaluating fisheries management from an EAF perspective. Finally, it reviews current fisheries management systems and discusses implications for management under changing climate conditions.",14,True
b738328,"If the nitrogen removal was fixed at USD 10 per kg, this would represent a NTC of USD 357 504, if it was fixed at USD 30 per kg, this would represent a NTC of USD 1 072 512. The same could be applied to another key nutrient, phosphorus. With an average of 0.04% phosphorus content in FW kelp tissues, 4.09 tonnes of phopshorus would be removed per year. With a value of USD 4 per kg removed (Chopin et al.,",14,False
2659be3,"Furthermore, science committee and fishery resource management committee were newly organized to coordinate joint participation and role assignments to relevant stakeholders. So far, 10 FSRPs have been established and operated, and it is planned to be expanded to 20 species by 2012. The results of pilot projects show that stocks are increasing after the introduction of FSRPs. For instance, the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of sandfish in the East Sea has increased from 0.44 in 2005 to 0.78 in 2007.",14,True
b6330c8,"Additionally, diarrhoea is a major cause of malnutrition in infants and young children. In the United States of America (USA), for example, around 76 million cases of foodborne diseases, resulting in 325 000 hospitalisations and 5 000 deaths, are estimated to occur each year. In the USA, diseases caused by the major pathogens alone are estimated to cost up to USD 35 billion annually (1997) in medical costs and lost productivity.",14,False
ea790b6,"First, the apparent stalemate in earlier, more ambitious, negotiations has meant proposals for text require a lowest common denominator approach to achieve consensus. Second, in the broader context of a largely stalled Doha Round, fisheries subsidies were always contingent on a measure of horse-trading among dominant members over other agreements. Third, the rest of the world has not remained still: disciplines have and are being developed in other fora, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).",14,True
d594348,"What role, if any, should RFMOs and/or fisheries management systems have in fisheries subsidies issues? How to define subsistence, small-scale and artisanal fishing and what subsidies disciplines should apply to these sectors? How could an agreement on fisheries subsidies address the future development needs of developing and LDC members without undermining sustainability?",14,True
1bcd2a0,"It is a business model aimed at the greatest societal benefits from economic, social and ecological perspectives. It outlines the ideas behind CSF as a business model, and how it was first put into place in the United States. Secondly, we describe how this idea is currently being put into practice in Skane with the innovation project Oresundsfisk, which was originally set up by SEA-U Marine Science Centre in Malmo, an economic association partly funded by the City of Malmo. The case study describes some of the challenges with CSF such as logistics and mobilizing funding.",14,True
7491a76,"Table 5.1 provides a summary of the main sectors involved, the types of plastic products or waste and the typical entry points to the ocean. Losses from this sector are unquantified but can be expected to be relatively low, provided good waste management practices are followed. However, losses may be much greater from poorly-managed municipal facilities and the informal waste recycling sectors.",14,True
386e34f,"The threats facing the oceans are many and include unsustainable and destructive fishing practices, illegal and unreported fishing, pollution from both land-based and ship-based sources, habitat destruction, the introduction of invasive species, ocean noise, ship strikes (collisions between cetaceans and vessels), the mining of minerals, and the extraction of oil and gas. The adverse impacts resulting from these activities act cumulatively with the effects of ocean acidification, ocean warming, shifting currents, reduced mixing and decreasing oxygen levels. While marine ecosystems and species might be able to withstand one type or intensity of impact, they are much more severely affected by a combination of effects.",14,True
8010390,"For example, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples enshrines the collective as well as individual rights of indigenous peoples, stating that “[i]ndigenous peoples have the right to the lands, territories and resources which they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise used or acquired,"" and directing States to give legal recognition to these territories (UNDRIP, 2008). If fisheries resources are to be sustained, fisheries activities must be conducted in a responsible manner. Traditional fishing practices may be more harmoniously aligned with environmental sustainability, but the current reality is that the small-scale fisheries subsector itself in many parts of the world is being forced to move towards unsustainable practices. Sustainable resource management is therefore an issue of critical concern for the small-scale fisheries sector.",14,True
3d00394,"This has implications for policy discussions on how to achieve progress on SDG 14. The interrelationships that we highlight can be used as a tool for dialogue between policy and scientific communities working on oceans, in particular for assessing the status of knowledge on the various linkages, as well as identifying linkages that are likely to matter most for progress on SDG 14. We are grateful for the research assistance provided by Esther Lho and Nelya Rakhimova.",14,True
77ae015,"The total first-hand value was slightly higher in 2007 compared to 2006. At the same time, fuel and lubrication oil costs increased. At this point of time it is, therefore, difficult to estimate the results for 2007. More details are available on the Norwegian Directorate of Fisheries website (luiow./isfeeridir.no).",14,False
a6d97b3,It will provide an immediate and automated screening of products for compliance with legal and regulatory submission requirements and be used to identify problems or deficiencies prior to import authorisation. It will also collect extensive and detailed data pertaining to imports establishing an extensive searchable data base for use in creating timely reports and research. The system will eventually include US export data as well.,14,False
d792c35,"The report gives a broad definition of IDRIS, listing requirements for qualification as IDRIS and possible additional features. Different organisational forms exist with or without legal identity, but a key point is that IDRIS should have clear added value. The OECD reports provide relevant information for IDRIS, summarising issues on road mapping and single-sited large international research infrastructures that may also be applicable to IDRIS. Often, only parts of these entities (as opposed to entire entities) collectively constitute the infrastructure. The agreement need not necessarily define a new legal entity, or be legally binding.",14,False
753915c,"The total budgetary' FSE includes other expenditures such as management of resources (management expenditures, enforcement expenditures) included as transfers to sector, and cost recovery charges. In 2015, total budgetary FSE amounted to EUR 13.2 million (USD 15 million). This includes transfers to fishers of EUR 322 000 (USD 357 000) and transfers to sector of EUR 12.9 million (USD 14.3 million).",14,False
fbba22a,"The dumping of waste at sea is controlled under the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter of 1972 and its 1996 Protocol. If these are effectively and consistently implemented, that particular source of inputs of harmful substances will be satisfactorily controlled. However, there are serious gaps in knowledge about their implementation: over 50 per cent of the contracting parties to those instruments are not reporting, and it is consequently not known how effective the instruments are (chap.",14,True
96df9b7,"A. aegypti appears to thrive in artificial habits created by discarded tyres, cans, plastic containers and other temporary reservoirs, and advice has been issued to minimise these potential breeding sites*. The rapid spread of Zika in South America and the Caribbean in 2015 and 2016 may have been exacerbated by a lack of effective waste collection and management. The American Administration asked Congress, on 6 Feb 2016, for more than US$ 1.8 billion in emergency funding for use both domestically and internationally.",14,False
d54a765,The threat of serious marine pollution hangs over many situations of armed conflict. Typical of this are perhaps the concerns surrounding the fact that some of the world’s most important oil tanker routes pass through areas rife with unrest and civil war. Piracy and the threat of hijack by terrorist groups (taking control of vessels physically or by breaching cyber-security defences) add to the list of concerns.,14,True
8c6f6cb,"For example, in recent years the European Union has adopted two instruments, the 2002 EU Recommendation on Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the 2008 Marine Strategy Framework Directive, which offer a comprehensive and integrated approach to the management of all European coasts and marine waters, and set medium- and long-term objectives (to 2020 and beyond) for member states for managing their ocean activities. East Asia has its Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), an international organisation focused on coastal and ocean governance in east Asia, scaling up integrated coastal management initiatives and aiming to improve technical co-operation in ecosystem-based management of watersheds, estuaries and adjacent coastal seas. In addition to the lack of protection that such gaps afford the ocean environment and its biodiversity, they create a decision-making vacuum for many ocean industries, notably in respect of future investment. By way of illustration, the negotiations around the implementation of the UN agreement to protect marine biodiversity promise to usher in a period of considerable uncertainty for those ocean industries operating in the high seas.",14,True
031f124,"Estimates of the size of the benefits of marine ecosystem services suggest that these are considerable (for a review of a selection of such studies see Annex 1 .A2), but much work remains to be done. Hence, as noted above, while many aspects of ecosystem services are taken into account here, the quantitative focus of this report is on ocean-based industries. To compare an industry’s contribution to the economy across countries, the share of total GVA is preferred to the share of GDP.",14,False
2bb7879,Those who absorb the cost of anticipatory actions are not necessarily those who will benefit. There are competing interests for ecosystem goods and services that make it difficult to build consensus around trade-offs and create winners and losers when trade-offs are made. There is the path dependence created by the history of management.,14,False
272a8cb,"An annual meeting takes place to ensure cooperation and coordination between regional centres under the Basel and Stockholm Conventions"". One of the main drivers for doing so was the realisation in the 1970s and 1980s of the extent of the traffic in toxic wastes to Africa and other developing regions12. The Basel Convention is of relevance, as much of the waste trade involves plastics, and some of these contain relatively high levels of additive chemicals which are in Annex I or II of the Convention. These have known toxicological effects, with serious human health implications.",14,False
d0a8bbd,"There are also new requirements to provide information on the nutrient content of foods. The new rules will help consumers make better-informed decisions when they buy food, boost consumer empowerment and contribute to the fight against the rising levels of obesity and chronic diseases in the European Union. In 2011, three health claims were authorised for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for children (relating to normal brain development, normal visual development and eye development).",14,False
e99e3da,"Among other things, it promotes concerted actions to undertake integrated ecosystem-based management and urges the scientific community to enhance understanding of the ocean. The Declaration looks towards the ocean as a new engine of sustainable economic growth with a new vision of “green growth from the sea”. In this regard they further committed to urgently take the measures necessary to maintain or restore all stocks at least to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield, with the aim of achieving these goals in the shortest time feasible, as determined by their biological characteristics. Special attention was given to ocean acidification, which may lead to drastic changes in the oceans’ ecosystem, especially coral bleaching.",14,True
40535b8,"They describe the current situation, and indicate what the situation in 2030/50 might be, what physical and biological impacts may emerge and how these changes might affect the economic potential of ocean-based activities. It is important to note the interconnections between the drivers and changes addressed in each subsection. By way of illustration, rising C02 emissions contribute to rising ocean acidification, which in turn affects certain marine creatures and, further compounded by e.g. ocean warming, pollution and ultimately the ocean’s biomass. The strongest warming trends have been found at high latitudes (Rhein et al.,",14,True
e1013a1,"Foreign ownership of quota or ACE is not allowed unless a specific exemption is granted by the Minister of Fisheries and the Overseas Investment Commission. To receive the exemption, a foreign company must demonstrate that New Zealand will benefit from the ownership. If New Zealand ceases to benefit, the ownership or interest in quota or ACE can be taken away from foreign companies without any compensation being offered.",14,False
b5c71ed,"Fuel saving is one of the most important goals of the Dutch fleet and the sector has invested in fuel saving gear. The result is a 24% decrease in 2014 of fuel consumption (in litres) per fishing day compared with the 2008-2013 average. In addition, decreasing fuel prices contributed to an overall reduction of energy costs by 21% with respect to the 2008-2013 average, along with a 4% increase in volume of landings.",14,False
52b6e14,"This means sustainable utilisation, conservation and management of the resource based on scientific information and applied expertise guided by respect for the marine ecosystem as a whole. Iceland’s National Strategy for Sustainable Development contains objectives specific to living marine resources and state that management should both aim to minimise any negative ecosystem impacts associated with fishing and use the best scientific information available to ensure fish stocks remain at sustainable levels. The management system has proven successful at achieving most of this, securing an economically sustainable fishing industry while also contributing to biological sustainability'. The Icelandic fleet has been reducing in size and becoming more profitable, the carbon footprint of the industry is reducing, fishing pressure has been declining and safety at sea has radically improved in recent decades.",14,True
1d275d9,"From the forest sector, data from Honduras show that it was 75% cheaper to produce and transport illegal wood than legal wood (Wells et al, 2007). One study estimated that illegal timber depresses global prices of timber by between 7% and 16%, costing US exporters at least USD 460 million a year (Seneca Creek Associates and Wood Resources International, 2004). Illegal harvesters are also able to free-ride on the efforts of those who are striving to manage a resource sustainably, for example, those fishing illegally from managed fisheries or in conservation areas, so increasing the costs for legitimate operators. Examples would be damage to equipment because of the use of poor-quality ODS counterfeit products, or the costs of remediation after the illegal dumping of waste.",14,True
a21d226,"This project will also assemble its outputs on the state of the marine ecosystems and shared living marine resource in the region as a comprehensive web-based dashboard. By enabling the pooling of data repositories, software, methodologies and expertise, iMarine aims to deliver cost-efficient data services. It will also expand its scope to other areas of blue growth, such as traceability of fishery products, spatial planning, and socio-economic and environmental performance of aquaculture.",14,True
f88b8fa,"In Iceland women account for about 7% of commercial boat-based fishers (Figure 2.5.1), unusually assuming all roles from skipper to deckhand (Willson 2014). Those in the commercial fishing sector serve on vessels of all sizes. It threatens the health of fish populations and marine and coastal ecosystems worldwide, as well as the livelihoods and food security of millions of inhabitants of coastal areas (Hall 2016, Pew Charitable Trusts 2016).",14,True
74ab336,"Despite some local successes, biodiversity is on the decline globally and this loss is projected to continue. Continuing with business as usual may have far-reaching adverse implications for human well-being, security and economic growth. This chapter summarises the considerable benefits and often hidden values of biodiversity and the ecosystems of which it is a part.",14,False
17e7bba,"Notwithstanding the fact that the outcomes from MC10 include a commitment to abolish export subsidies for farm exports, some members have called for a more result. In particular, for reinvigorated action by WTO members on ambitious and effective disciplines on fisheries subsidies. This is reflected in an initiative led by a subset of WTO members which gained some momentum at MC10 which calls for international action to eliminate harmful fishing subsidies (McClay, 2015).",14,True
87006da,"These will state what is needed to be achieved for a fishery (objectives) and the implementation strategies to achieve those objectives-including research, regulations, and compliance. New Zealand participates in the FAO co-ordinated development of International Guidelines on the Management of Deep-Sea Fisheries in the High Seas, the negotiation of a binding port State measures agreement and the WTO negotiations to end fishing subsidies. The government also released the Marine Protected Areas Policy and Implementation Plan (MPA Policy). This has been somewhat counterbalanced by increases in farmed greenshell mussel production which also became the key export species.",14,True
23d2155,"In England, the “Enclosures” deprived many poor peasants of access to land their families had used for centuries. The conflicts and misery generated were even worse than those that will inevitably accompany any solution for fisheries. For example, in one incident in 1607, known as the Newton Rebellion, a battle between the gentry and peasantry left around 50 people dead, and the peasant ringleaders were hanged and quartered. Access to some resources is controlled, notably in EEZ, and there are attempts to extend control to the whole “territory”.",14,False
0b8f33a,"Further, EU employment law requires that EU DWF crew receive two months of paid holiday—including transfers— for each four months of work onboard .8 EU DWF crew also receive several days of holiday when the fish is offloaded, whereas crew on Filipino and Taiwanese boats often do the stevedoring themselves (ibid.). This heterogeneity in part contributes to the complexity of analysing the potential implications of proposed fisheries subsidies disciplines at the WTO. First, it is difficult to identify and prove a 'trade distortion' for fish products since the same species normally fetch widely different prices because of complex quality and market differentials. Second, the WTO's analytical emphasis on exchange/ trade means subsidies are defined mainly in terms of export distortions, which the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (ASCM) suggests should be assessed by examining negative trade effects such as market share or prices in an export market.",14,True
c3d52b3,"Further disciplines could also be considered for capacity-enhancing subsidies. Besides subsidies for IUU fishing and overfishing and overcapacity, developing countries, including LDCs and small vulnerable economies (SVEs), should be permitted to provide fisheries subsidies for coastal and commercial fishing activities. These proposals reflect the position held by SVEs since the late 2000s—that disciplines should fall hardest on developed WTO members with large-scale distant water fishing (DWF) fleets, allowing developing countries and LDCs the policy space to provide subsidies to support the sustainable development of their domestic fisheries. The main new addition of the ACP and LDC proposals was to draw attention to subsidies that support fishing in the high seas. General disciplines for the elimination of subsidies contributing to IUU fishing and prohibition of certain forms of fisheries subsidies contributing to overfishing and overcapacity would enter into force no later than 2020.",14,True
4580462,"Its work plan is flexible to enable quick response to emerging issues in the international trading environment that impact particularly on highly vulnerable Commonwealth constituencies - least developed countries (LDCs), small states and sub-Saharan Africa. Regional and Emerging Trade Issues, held in Port Louis, Mauritius. Investment and Innovation, UNCTAD 14, held in Nairobi, Kenya.",14,False
39222d3,"However, the ability of many SIDS to attract viable large-scale processing sector businesses is often limited by location and by operating and transport costs. The potential for renewable energy use in these approaches should be linked to Strategy 2. Opportunities may lie in both domestic and export markets, as well as in accessing entirely new markets or working to improve marketing and value addition in existing markets.",14,False
f3189e3,"Progress is slow, however, as illustrated by the difficulties in reaching consensus even in areas such as transparency and notifications. Financial and technical assistance, as well as technology transfer (Target 14.a), will be important to many SIDS and LDCs as they look to create and implement national and regional strategies for sustainability, preservation and protection of their fisheries industries. These interlinked goals provide a new framework for advancing sustainable development over the next 15 years. Today, the global population is about 7.3 billion, a figure projected to reach about 8.5 billion by 2035 (UNDESA, 2011). Some 2 billion more people will populate the earth in 20 years from now.",14,True
40cb697,"At a general level, uncertainties with all of these technologies arise with respect to the speed of technological development, the impact of advances in individual technologies, and - perhaps most importantly - the convergence of ICT, sensors, robotics, nano- and biotechnology. Advances in one technology may amplify developments and outcomes of other technologies, leading to disruptive changes. This is already becoming visible in green technologies, which typically operate at the intersection of these emerging technologies, in the creation of ‘'programmable matter”, and in advances in the medical and pharmaceutical fields.",14,False
7b9cd78,"Section 2.3 studies the opportunities for enlarging the economic base, as well as the important role of innovation in the NORA region. New developments, research and the implementation of new techniques can support the future competitiveness and sustainability of traditional natural-resource-based industries. At the same time, in the context of increasing efforts to sustain and diversify regional economies, innovation could help to support the development of emerging or new niches and sectors. However, this will require improving education and training and encouraging entrepreneurship and competition.",14,False
e4d59cd,"Well-advised policies and strategies backed by strong research programmes will be of paramount importance in overcoming production constraints. Especially in more-affluent markets, consumers are increasingly requiring high standards of quality assurance and demanding guarantees that the fish they purchase are produced sustainably. Stringent quality- and safety-related import standards, together with requirements for products meeting international animal health and environmental standards and social responsibility requirements, might act as barriers to small-scale fish producers and operators attempting to penetrate international markets and distribution channels.",14,True
52aa76f,"Accordingly, the creation of the GFCM Forum on Fisheries Science, the conducting of regional surveys-at-sea and the compilation of catalogues of fishing activities aim at enhancing the quantity and quality of data used for advice. The revision of existing management plans or the development of new ones is also considered necessary for main commercial fisheries as well as the fisheries that rely on or show a strong interaction with resources in need of urgent action. It also recognizes that collecting socio-economic data that are as complete, timely and accurate as possible helps develop coherent policies to ensure resource and market access for small-scale fishers.",14,True
0fdf2a5,Similar issues have been raised in the food safety area as have been raised in relation to eco-labels and certification. What are the various roles of the public and private sector in food safety governance? How are costs divided amongst the various stakeholders? And what are the impacts on small-scale operators and developing countries if they fail to meet public let alone private sector requirements?,14,False
af54511,"As has been mentioned already, the small scale fishers were exempt from the ITQ system when it was first implemented, mostly due to fears that they would be bought out of the industry. Various measures were taken to safeguard their livelihoods while at the same time there was an increased pressure on this fleet to adopt some form of quotas to limit their catches. To increase employment in coastal communities, fishers using a long-line that is baited onshore have been allowed to double their catches in demersal (living near the bottom) species.",14,True
b8fa33a,"The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (“the Convention"" / UNCLOS) sets out the overarching international legal framework for all activities on the oceans and seas, including the conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources. It is complemented by the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (“the Agreement”). The latter sets out a comprehensive legal framework for the implementation of the provisions of the Convention relating to the longterm conservation and sustainable use of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks.",14,True
9baa14c,"To the extent permitted by its national laws and regulations, each member of the Commission shall establish arrangements for making available to prosecuting authorities of other members of the Commission evidence related to alleged violations of the provisions of the Convention and any conservation and management measures adopted by the Commission, including information available on the beneficial ownership of vessels flying its flag.",14,False
06c79ab,"Since it came into force in 1986, the law has undergone four amendments, in 2000, 2004, 2009 and 2013. Further amendments were still under development in 2015. Suggestions for changes were collected by conducting investigations, surveys and symposia where policymakers, industries and scientists had a chance to provide input.",14,False
b51c90a,"The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. All requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to rights@oecd.org. Requests for permission to photocopy portions of this material for public or commercial use shall be addressed directly to the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) at info@copyright.com or the Centre francais d’exploitation du droit de copie (CFC) at contact@cfcopies.com. R. (2005), ""Property rights in fisheries: Iceland's experience with ITQs"", Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 15(3): 243-264.",14,False
f21007c,"Given that PNG, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu are unlikely to meet Goal 1, achieving Target 10.1 will also be difficult without serious reform. Fiji is, however, likely to meet Target 10.1 based on its positive outlook for Goal 1. Ensuring equal opportunities and reducing inequalities of outcome (Target 10.3) are also closely dependent on the outcome of Target 5.1 to end all forms of discrimination against women and girls.",15,False
9b0ba0f,"The Network of Networks on Impact Evaluation (NONIE), comprised of the OECD DAC Evaluation Network, the United Nations Evaluation Group (UNEG), the Evaluation Cooperation Group (ECG), and the International Organisation for Cooperation in Evaluation (IOCE), was formed in 2006 to promote quality impact evaluations. The group has also developed NONIE guidance on impact evaluation (Leeuw and Vaessen, 2009). Systematic reviews examine the results of a synthesis of individual impact evaluation studies to identify general relationships and treatment effects.",15,False
6b2b5a0,"It reflects changes in total production of goods and services. It is a powerful summary indicator of economic development, even though it does not account for social and environmental cost of production and consumption. It is obtained by calculating gross capital formation as a percentage of gross domestic product.",15,False
2b447b4,"For instance, those who have completed upper secondary education can be expected either to have an adequate set of skills relevant to the labour market or to have demonstrated the ability to acquire such skills. Life-long learning is essential to sustainable development. The scale and quality of human resources are major determinants of both the creation of new knowledge and its dissemination.",15,False
ee17bef,"More than four-fifths of the forests are available for wood production, and all but some small areas of plantations are classified as semi-natural. The amount of acres burned in 2007 was 10 times higher than the prior two years (Figure 9.3). Other disturbance agents that contribute to loss of forest cover and timber volume include insects, pathogens, and illegal logging. Since then, the country has acquired suppression equipment such as planes, tractors, and fire engines.",15,True
fa2de24,"At its 8th meeting, on 14 May, the Forum held its high-level round table 1 on the topic “Integration of forests in the post-2015 development agenda”. At the same meeting, the Forum held its high-level round table 2 on the topic “Renewed commitments to the implementation of the international arrangement on forests beyond 2015”. At its 9th meeting, on 14 May, the Forum held a high-level dialogue with heads of the member organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, heads of the regional organizations and representatives of major groups.",15,True
6f97f02,"Statistics Norway participates in work on SEEA experimental accounts on ecosystem services. Indicators are chosen from a variety of species groups for each ecosystem, and they are used to measure deviation from a reference state, which is intended to represent ecological sustainability. All indicators and the overall Nature Index have values between 1 [for the reference state] and 0 [very poor state).",15,True
3ce308a,"Significant progress in the development of an effective management system for protected areas has been made since 2008 in Sarajevo Canton. The cantonal Ministry of Physical Planning and Environmental Protection has adopted a new system of management for three established protected areas: natural monuments Vrelo Bosne and Scacovac and protected landscape Biambare. All three protected areas were transferred for management purposes to the newly established Directorate for Protected Areas (a public institution under the control of the Ministry), currently with 22 staff, to be expanded to 29.",15,True
1e1a7aa,"Moreover, with reference to the source database, the OECD Secretariat is better able to identify and explain discrepancies between this indicator, national data or other sources. The WDPA is updated continuously, which means that updates to the indicator can be done more regularly (e.g. annually). The method allows the data on protected areas to be summarised in a harmonised and more detailed way than is currently available, without requiring any additional reporting by countries.",15,True
05b1b4a,"The growth in real wages accelerated after 2010, reflecting tight labour market conditions and skills shortages (OECD, 2013a). However, unemployment has been on the rise since early 2015 (OECD, 2015b). The economic structure has shifted towards stronger reliance on services in recent decades while the share of the primary sector and industry in value added has declined. Nevertheless, the primary sector accounts for a larger share of GDP than in OECD countries (see Basic Statistics) and remains a mainstay of the economy.",15,False
38c7058,"Valuable comments were received from Denny Lewis-Bynoe, John Connell, Garry Wiseman and Anthony Polack. Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand. Although New Zealand is a member of the Commonwealth, Cook Islands and Niue are not included as Commonwealth Pacific small states in this Report.",15,False
30e06b7,"The data plan also needs to cover issues such as ownership of compiled data. Although it is a metadatabase, it might be necessary to have different types of options for access and use, and to establish some kind of agreement and different levels of logins, depending on metadata stored. The data plan needs to include a strategy for the use of data and knowledge that is not publicly available, such as local or traditional knowledge that cannot be shared outside the group of knowledge holders, or medical/psychological data collected with prior informed consent restricting the use of data, as well as for quality management. Whenever possible, the sets of metadata should contain information on the geographical location and temporal reference of the underlying data as well as the scientific and ILK protocol with which they were collected.",15,False
4146526,"First, the multitude of different strategic documents of equal status with either the same or, to a large extent, overlapping objectives, all valid for the same period and therefore expected to be simultaneously implemented, resulted in competition for the limited available state budget funding and limited institutional and staff capacities. Similarly, foreign donors have difficulty understanding what the priorities are among several similar and overlapping policy documents. In some cases, substantive contents of the strategic documents are not fully reflected in the corresponding implementation action plans.",15,False
cc7f133,"The lack of funds presents a large risk factor to the fulfilment of the project plan. The Nordic hubs in support of authors should apply for funds for all sub-parts of the assessment, but there are no guarantees as to how successful they will be, nor is it yet clear if the project will be able to establish such hubs. There is also a need for funds to cover the co-chairs' hours of work, and the meeting costs and DSA.",15,False
58467c9,"The adverse trends of forest decline and degradation would immediately result in increased government expenditures on risk management, protective and emergency measures. Reforestation has to be perceived in the long term, as, due to climate and soil conditions in mountain regions, the success of such activities would require at least several decades of effort and investment. This is particularly so in the case of the 13 nature preserves, which are traditionally designated for 10 years only, whose status is not always prolonged in a timely manner for the subsequent period.",15,True
0816b79,"Nature Geoscience, 9(10), 737-+. Seasonal sea ice cover as principal driver of spatial and temporal variation in depth extension and annual production of kelp in Greenland. Global Change Biology, 18(10), 2981-2994. Description of diatoms from the Southwest to west Greenland coastal and open marine waters.",15,False
d2064bc,"The unclear status of these areas resulted in growing pressures (e.g. for grazing areas) which, in some cases, led to their deterioration. Finally, in late 2015, the legal protective status of 12 nature preserves has been extended, for the next 10 years (until 2025). Therefore, the legal status alone of 13 nature preserves cannot currently be perceived as an effective solution to ensuring their protection, due to the uncertainty of their continued existence in the future. This is attributable in large part to the fact that all state nature reserves are legal entities with a stable and clear legal mandate, have valid land use certificates, are managed solely for nature conservation purposes, and receive more attention and support from the Government, foreign donors, international organizations and conservation NGOs.",15,True
d8273fe,These respondents criticized that cooperation depends too much on the disposition of the directors and therefore the prioritization of cooperation by the senior management as well as simply the chemistry between individuals. The best options for each country will therefore depend on its characteristics and context. The case study examples below are intended as suggestions or inspiration to help each country strengthen its institutional arrangements in the most appropriate manner.,15,False
8f3941f,"More specific planning efforts in the biodiversity field - be they in the format of a new BSAP or another appropriate format - will flow from the general priorities identified by that plan. This is a significant policy gap, which calls for concerted planning efforts. At the same time, the expiry of the old plans offers an opportunity to look back at both plans and their implementation and to identify lessons learned and areas for improvement. They appeared inadequate to address the pressures and threats that affect biodiversity in Turkmenistan.",15,True
33398cd,"The UN-REDD programme developed guidance to promote gender-sensitive processes in the preparation, implementation and monitoring of REDD+ projects and other action plans which focus on strengthening a bottom-up approach, including priority alignment to national needs and capacities (FAO/UNDP/UNEP 2013). However, mainstreaming gender in national policies, which is often interpreted as an increased number of women participating at local level, is not sufficient to realize the full potential of women and men as agents of change at community level. Systematic gender-responsive analysis should be carried out, including information on decision-making, gender perceptions and actual gender differences in interests in, as well as needs for effective engagement of women and men in REDD+ implementation in local contexts (Eggerts 2016, Larson et al.",15,True
afee32b,"A replacement ratio of 1.33 is applied for offsets with a time to maturity of between 5 and 25 years and 1.67 for those with time to maturity between 25 and 100 years (de Bie and van Dessel, 2011). The size of the replacement ratio applied is usually related to the assessed risk that an offset will successfully mature (McKinney and Kiesecker, 2010). Guidance material for the biodiversity offset pilots in England, for example, recommends multipliers of ten times the measured size of the clearing site for habitats that are classified as having a “very high difficulty of restoration/recreation” (DEFRA, 2012).",15,True
6bb7af8,"An important concept is opportunity costs, or the value foregone when a given alternative is undertaken: e.g., the cost of choosing scenario 1 over scenario 2. If we protect a resource today, the opportunity cost is the value that would have been generated had we consumed it instead. Alternatively, if we choose to consume a resource today, the opportunity cost is the value that would have been generated from protecting it.",15,False
968e65e,"The calculation method is shown on the positive list for each project type under the heading “methodology”. Therefore, the party in charge of a project simply needs to use the capture volume calculation formula shown there. The party carrying out the project monitors it in accordance with these guidelines, collects the data and calculates the results.",15,False
4bf503a,"For example, technology platforms now support real-time reporting, rather than yearly reports, to present visual information overlaid with display data on other illicit enterprises. This analysis would produce concrete and timely metrics, and reveal nexuses among activity that may not have been evident in the past. The aggregation of mobile reporting is just scratching the surface of potential value of the data analytics.",15,False
102239d,"The server sends regular messages to designated recipients regarding current temperatures, and also warnings when the temperature exceeds critical thresholds. For example, in India, monthly cellular connectivity for connected temperature monitor devices are in the range of around a dollar a month or less per fridge. The most expensive component is often the cell radio, while conversely, the temperature sensors are relatively cheap. In some cases, advantageous mobile cellular terms can be negotiated, resulting in reduced operating costs.",15,False
18acb65,"For policy purposes, employment-to-population ratios of youth and old are particularly relevant. The indicator is based on the broader indicator ‘status in employment’ which distinguishes between three categories of the total employed. These are: age and salaried workers (also known as employees), self-employed workers (employers, own-account workers and members of producers’ cooperatives), contributing family workers (also known as unpaid family workers).",15,False
0fa580f,"They are often subject to sexual abuse and health risks such as HIV/AIDS. Women's contributions to mining enterprises are often invisible because they perform unrecognized and undervalued care and domestic work. Despite heavy involvement of women in ASM, men control and own most of the family's assets, including land, the income from mining and farming, tools, homes, crops and the benefits yielded. Contamination by mercury used in gold recovery has significant impacts not only on women, men and children working at ASM sites, but on other people in the vicinity and those living in downstream areas (specifically young children and women who are pregnant and breastfeeding) (AU and AMCC 2015, Cordy et al.",15,False
71291e9,"Most fishing is carried out by obsolete fleets and very often directed at fish stocks that are already heavily exploited. Further increasing aquaculture production could contribute to supplying seafood and fish at lower costs to the population, thereby reducing pressure on natural fishery resources. However, its potentially negative impact on aquatic ecosystems should be taken into account. Efforts are being made to develop new approaches and techniques, including run-of-river projects in suitable conditions, as development of dams for large hydro can have an adverse impact on river ecosystems and local communities.",15,True
8fdefb8,"Time series data are also available for each of these. While the FD accounted for two-thirds of MOECAF spending (MMK 13.62 billion or USD 13.29 million), the share of FD funding going to NWCD was relatively low at 8.5% (MMK 1.15 billion or USD 1.12 million). Overall, the MOECAF budget (MMK 21.46 billion or USD 20.93 million) accounted for just 0.18% of total union expenditures on line ministries and departments (MMK 12.13 billion or USD 11.8 billion).",15,True
5de97a5,"The share of the population with access to improved water sources increased from 88% in 1990 to almost 98% in 2012. Water supply in urban areas is almost universal, though 15% of the rural population still lacks access to an improved water source (Annex 3.A). The share of households connected to water pipe networks reached 94% in urban areas in 2013. Regional disparity is wide, however, with most of the urban dwellers still not connected to a water network found in the North-east region and, particularly, the North, where less than 60% are connected (MCid, 2014).",15,False
db844d4,"The few rivers discharging into the Caspian Sea from Turkmenistan are not major sturgeon spawning areas, but the Turkmen coast between Esenguly and Ogurchinsky Island is a key wintering area for them and other fish, as well as a regular habitat of the Caspian seal. Annual sturgeon catches throughout the Caspian declined from > 25,000 t in the 1970s to 470 t in 2000. Sturgeon fishing in the Caspian Sea is now forbidden and there are no significant sturgeon spawning rivers in Turkmenistan, so there is no official sturgeon fishery there. Turkmenistan has had zero CITES export quotas for sturgeon products since 2007.",15,True
cd7c23a,"Approval signifies that the material has been subject to detailed, line-by-line discussion and agreement by consensus. However, if a reader should report an error (e.g., a miscalculation or a factual inaccuracy) in an accepted report chapter or approved summary for policymakers, the issue should be brought to the attention of the Secretariat, which should implement a process for error correction. The text below is adapted from the IPBES procedure for the Nordic Assessment.",15,False
753d68e,"Continued decline of the bladderwrack, Fucus vesiculosus, in the Archipelago Sea, northern Baltic proper. Boreal Environment Research, 21(5-6), 373-386. Vikingsson, G. A., Pike, D. G., Desportes, G., 0ien, N., Gunnlaugsson, T., & Bloch, D. (2009). Distribution and abundance of fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) in the Northeast and Central Atlantic as inferred from the North Atlantic Sightings Surveys 1987-2001.",15,False
50b91fa,"Existing management plans are often based on sound scientific information and analysis, yet tend to lack management tools and practical applicability, resulting in a generally low level of implementation. In 2012, half the management plans of Amazonian federal and state protected areas were being applied very little, if at all, according to the TCU (2013). Other studies pointed to even lower levels of implementation (Semeia, 2012b).",15,True
9d4054e,"On World Environment Day, June 5, 1999, former prime minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai made a public appeal to resist cutting standing trees. But his words were later twisted into a blanket ban on felling living trees in community forests. This happened in 2010 following increased reports of smuggled goods from valuable forests in the southern plains.",15,True
5992d8b,"An action plan is now needed to put the new strategy into operation. Implementation of the strategy would also benefit from an assessment of the efficiency and effectiveness of existing policy instruments. The government is committed to achieving the Aichi targets of protecting 17% of terrestrial areas and 10% of marine areas by 2020. Colombia considers that protected areas cover about 12% of terrestrial areas and 9.2% of marine areas. However, the latter estimate is more than that which is currently assessed using IUCN criteria and includes an area which has been the subject of an international dispute. This suggests that a significant effort will be required, particularly for marine areas.",15,True
2994e46,"Wetlands are highly valued habitats for biodiversity and their loss is of international significance. However, for some types of seminatural agricultural habitats (farm woodland and fallow land) the area has increased or remained stable for a number of countries. Depending on the degree of sealing, it reduces or completely prevents natural soil functions and ecosystem services in the area concerned. This excludes woodland or forest predominantly under agricultural or urban land use and used only for recreation purposes.",15,True
ecf9ee0,"Because the Macedonian waters have a rich endemic ichthyofauna, MoEPP is also involved for biodiversity conservation matters. However, all fishing is now prohibited on Lake Ohrid to protect the Ohrid trout. Five-year concessions are given to a single fishing company on each waterbody, and the company is expected to develop a master plan for protection, improvement, and usage of the relevant fish stock during their license period.",15,True
ab5353e,"Government activities were divided into government expenditure (GOV) and five different kinds of taxes direct tax on domestic institutions (DIRTAX), import tariffs (IMPTAX), value added tax (VATAX), indirect or sales taxes (INDTAX) and factor taxes (FACTAX). Lastly, savings and investment (S-l) represent the capital account, while the rest of the world (ROW) is modelled as a single sector. The framework set out below is based on that prepared by Parra and Wodon (2009). Thus, in 2001, forestry and hunting contributed TSh 296.7 billion to the GDP in 2001 of the United Republic of Tanzania, which translates into TSh.",15,False
d301d54,"What have been the contributions of afforestation and reforestation? The net increase between 2000 and 2015 was 28.1 million ha, or 1.5% of the total area of forest and other wooded land in 2000. Natural expansion onto former agricultural land accounts for most of the increase, but afforestation in the context of public programmes has played a significant role in some countries.",15,True
f1f0744,"Yet if our climate is to be stabilised, today’s developing countries need to lead the world to a solution - and as has been emphasised elsewhere in this chapter, there is no solution to climate change without halting deforestation. Climate change had already caused suffering in the country. In 2005, floods inflicted damage equivalent to 60% of that year’s gross domestic product (GDP). Yet, as a country with 85% of its land mass under forest, an area larger than Great Britain, our people didn’t want to just complain about climate change - we were prepared to act. We were prepared to deploy almost our entire forest in the global fight against climate change, providing: 1) we could access the right economic incentives to value our standing forests, and 2) our people’s sovereignty over their forests would not be diminished.",15,True
15a3369,"This shows that the present value of net losses are an order of magnitude higher when taking into account the effect of deforestation on the full range of forest ecosystem services. Hence, investments in the forestry sector could potentially also be beneficial from the perspective of poverty alleviation. In that sense, this report provides further rationale for efforts to accelerate the implementation of the REDD+ National Strategy and Action Plan.",15,True
fef8019,"Kiribati, Nauru and PNG are not expected to achieve this target, with an increasing trend in TB incidence, and work also remaining to eliminate NTDs - Kiribati (filariasis, trachoma, leprosy), Nauru (trachoma), PNG (filariasis, trachoma, leprosy, yaws, soil-transmitted helminthiases and foodborne trematodiases) (WHO, 2013). On the other hand, Samoa and Tonga’s alcohol per capita consumption is expected to increase significantly, making it difficult for these countries to achieve this target. It should also be noted that while there are no Tier 1 indicators at present to make an assessment on Target 3.4 on reducing NCDs, the outlook on NCDs is expected to be grim if efforts are not scaled up (see Chapter 6). The IAEG-SDGs proposed 11 indicators to monitor this goal, of which three were Tier 1 indicators (see Appendix 2.1). The only relevant indicator relevant for assessment relates to quality early childhood development but there are only sparse data available for some of the countries (Table 2.4). Given these limitations, an overall assessment for Commonwealth Pacific small states on Goal 4 is not possible.",15,False
2e60d2d,"Lakes, rivers and marine waters are probably of good or very good ecological status. Habitat degradation is not regarded as a major issue in Greenland. However, climate driven changes in physical properties might alter the biological balance and regional biodiversity. For instance, northward retreatment of the sea ice edge has been linked to an increase in the distribution of kelp beds and increase in the seasonal productivity of seaweeds along the Greenland West coast (Krause-Jensen et al., Wild species, and to some degree pollution and invasive species, may threaten the present good status. In addition, copepod droppings constitute a food resource for bottom-living animals as they sink to the seafloor.",15,True
2e7d6f8,"At present, one license was issued, however, it is outdated. According to the estimates of experts, there are no obvious signs of reduction in the volumes of these products. Nonetheless, there is no legislation which takes full account of good international practices and principles in river water management, assigning specific responsibilities to the various institutions and for the different water usages. A river basin management planning approach is lacking, as opposed to a sectorial planning approach. Erosion processes are very intensive and this, together with desertification on winter pastures, poses threats to biodiversity and local agriculture. Sustainable pasture management has huge potential for the protection of biodiversity and local economic development.",15,True
0281b04,"In these areas, primary biological production - animal breeding - supports an important sector of the economy upon which the majority of the population depends. This activity, if managed appropriately, conserves vegetation cover, thereby preventing soil erosion on mountain slopes, and reducing the likelihood of flooding. The latter has the potential to cause annual agricultural losses in the millions of United States dollars.",15,True
075b132,"A key driver of demand for urban nature recreation is user preferences for site attributes. For example, mountain bikers may tend to prefer (and are willing to pay for) artificially designed and engineered trails while hikers may prefer a ""wilder"" trail (Table 1 identifies some common attributes that provide welfare for different recreation users). Note also that the availability of nearby substitute sites can affect the value of a given site.",15,False
2bcb6a6,"The deserts of central, Zaunguzskij and south-eastern Karakum, as well as other deserted lands, occupy more than 80 per cent of the country. Almost 20 per cent of the country’s territory is covered by mountains: the Kopetdag Mountains and, to the north, the separated mountain ridges of Small and Grand Balkhany. The Koytendag Mountains are located to the east, as well as the highest peaks of the country, up to 3,140 m above sea level.",15,False
a08750e,"Mongolia is the eighteenth largest country and the second largest landlocked country in the world. Northern Mongolia is covered by forest and mountain ranges, while desert, desert steppe and steppe areas cover the south. The western region is dominated by the Altai and Khangai Mountains and the east is covered by vast plains and wild heaths. In 2015, these six categories of land accounted for 73.5 per cent, 0.5 per cent, 0.3 per cent, 16.1 per cent, 9.2 per cent, and 0.4 per cent of the total land area, respectively (figure 12.1).",15,False
6e8bf73,"Among these, 23 species have been declared natural monuments, 74 species are extinct, 39 species are endangered, 171 species are vulnerable and 1,253 species are rare. Grassland species account for 37 per cent of the total species represented. Some 600 algae species and over 700 species of marine and coastal plants exist. A very high percentage of the plant species (4 per cent) are endemic.",15,True
eda2391,Providing a real-time collection of participatory information related to illicit trade can engage a broader base of contributors. National policy could also benefit from the dynamic views that allow for a “story-telling” approach to presentations. This simple means of relaying the information could reinforce commitment to the prevention of cross-border illegal activity.,15,False
40f304a,"Main concerns relate to the impacts of human activities on fish stocks and habitats in the marine and fresh waters, and to their consequences for biodiversity and for the supply of marine protein (fish) for human consumption and other uses. The trend towards increased global fish catch has been achieved partly through exploitation of new and/or less valuable species and partly through aquaculture. Though global fish catch seems to have stabilised recently, Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing is widespread and hinders the achievement of sustainable fishery management objectives. Within the framework of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing, international efforts are being made to address the issue of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing.",15,True
41ed2c1,"These measures are needed to provide incentives to farmers for implementing voluntary measures that are beneficial for nature protection but that may affect agricultural production. Regarding seeds and genetic resources, Croatia has been following OECD and FAO advice on the use of plant species. Effectively, GMOs cannot be planted, not even for testing purposes, and GMO products cannot be sold in the country (0.2 per cent of GMO content in a product is the maximum allowed).",15,True
50aace4,"Seed banks “enhance social relationships, build community trust, contribute to local governance and community institution-building, and strengthen farmer-to-farmer networks.” In March 2013, almost 40 farmers representing seed banks across the country gathered in Kachorwa to share their experiences and formalise linkages. A team led by Madan Bliatta, chief of the National Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre had driven all the way from Kathmandu to Kachorwa — a day’s worth of travel — to start the process of funnelling seeds from the community seed bank to the national gene bank. The government-run CSB’s have also begun to take their conservation mandate seriously, and a new seed regulation published last year introduced a simpler mechanism of landrace registration, which enables farmers to legally sell their seeds, but not to brand or commercialise them.",15,True
fa86ad5,"The demand for wildlife products — in particular ivory and rhino horn — has led to a resurgence of elephant and rhino poaching. In addition, there has also been a shift in the areas targeted by poachers and the weapons used, with snaring and poisoning of animals used in place of firearms, especially in areas that hitherto never experienced poaching. The methods, trade routes and concealment techniques used by poachers to traffic wildlife products and engage in the illegal wildlife trade have also evolved.",15,True
33e70cd,"However, there are no reported data for the relevant Tier 1 indicators, preventing an overall assessment on this goal. In this regard, given the prevailing high levels of violence against women (see Goal 5), Commonwealth Pacific small states will also find it challenging to achieve Target 16.1. In addition, human trafficking (Target 16.2) is an emerging issue, with cases reported in Fiji, PNG, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu (Lindley and Beacroft, 2011). On the other hand, percentile rankings have declined for the majority of the nine states on the rule of law, government effectiveness and regulatory quality (Figure 2.8).",15,False
b6b8a41,"With big data and technologies, the time for companies and governments underplaying deforestation, wildlife trade, poaching or illegal fishing is over. Artificial intelligence can now be used to help boost protection and resilience of natural systems instead. The Natural Capital Project uses remote-sensing-based natural capital assessment to guide jurisdictional development planning, mapping supply risk for corporate sourcing decisions, and helping conservation organizations target investments in forest restoration.",15,True
e798a22,"Related to ""Nature's benefits to people"" and ""quality of life"" there are also indirect drivers and policy options, and many others as well, such as outdoor recreation organisations, local development groups etc. Examples are the PISUNA project in Greenland and the Snowchange Deatnu Oral History Project in Finland. This includes the implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets, see Annex 8, and the Nordic region and countries' specific policy questions. It should present Nordic aspects of priority regarding the thematic challenges identified by the IPBES, such as land degradation and restoration, invasive alien species, and sustainable use of biodiversity.",15,True
41ae6f0,"It has four main strategic thrusts: knowledge management, valuation of biodiversity, conservation, and diversification of use. Some of the more specific and tangible biodiversity and forestry goals and targets include: expanding protected areas to 16% by 2020 from 12.9% today, significantly reducing (also by 2020) the national forest degradation rate and maintaining forest biodiversity under the REDD+ programme on greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and degradation, and, by 2020, having efficient prevention, detection and early response systems and instruments in place so as to prevent, mitigate, control and eradicate invasive species. A major effort currently under way is to decentralise implementation through the development of state biodiversity strategies.",15,True
9ff347e,"Although the use of secondary species has increased in recent years, the adoption of strategic diversification measures is not yet generating the expected results. This situation hampers the economic growth of the chain, of Peten and of the Guatemalan forestry sector in general. Current forest-governance mechanisms do not yet guarantee the eradication of illegal activities or their reduction to minimal levels.",15,True
c6fc07d,"Detailed information is available in the methodology sheets contained in the accompanying CD-Rom as well as on the internet at http:/huww.un.org/esalsnstdevlnatlinfol indicators/isd. National estimates are based on population-weighted subgroup estimates derived from household surveys. It provides information on progress towards poverty alleviation, a central objective and requirement of sustainable development.",15,False
5db8c49,"Roe (2010) examined the degree to which biodiversity-poverty links have been recognised in NDPs (predominantly PRSPs but including other development plans listed by the World Bank as the equivalent of PRSPs) and found that just over 25% show a relatively high level of recognition of the importance of biodiversity, just under 25% have a low level of recognition and 50% fall in between). Just under half of the PRSPs reviewed have a relatively narrow interpretation of biodiversity - the focus being on wildlife, forests or protected areas - but some interpret biodiversity in a broader sense, noting the importance of genetic resources (e.g. Dominica) and agricultural biodiversity (e.g. Bangladesh, Nepal, Viet Nam) and others recognise the link between biodiversity and ecosystem services (e.g. Cambodia, Lao, Liberia, Uganda, Zambia). Following liberalisation, Myanmar has faced the need to revisit its policy directions and formulate new short-term and long-term strategies (OECD, 2015a).",15,True
4d6002c,"It is to be achieved primarily through the national land use planning framework, and secondarily by means of interventions in key sectors such as agriculture, forestry and fishing. Sectoral interventions include pro-active measures promoting biodiversity conservation (e.g. sustainable agriculture, ecotourism), as well as corrective measures that eliminate perverse incentives that are detrimental to biodiversity (e.g. removal of certain agricultural support programmes). Mainstreaming biodiversity into other policy sectors also requires looking into synergies and possible trade-offs (e.g. between biodiversity and food production, or biodiversity and climate change policies), as well as integrating biodiversity policy with equity objectives. How it may be used is determined by the national land use planning policy.",15,True
412fd31,"Meeting the restoration targets is likely to require significant financial resources and innovative finance mechanisms, such as green bonds for restoration investment. The CAR will allow to identify high-biodiversity-value areas and to prioritise restoration actions. Most such instruments aim to reward biodiversity-friendly actions, such as good agricultural practices or sustainable forest use.",15,True
2045d3e,"Debt constitutes a burden for future generations as it reduces the amount available for their consumption and investments. High and increasing debt ratios can be seen as an indication of unsustainable public finances. With regard to external debt, this is one of the indicators that measures the burden of servicing the external debt of a country in relation to its total income (GNI).",15,False
7796d9d,"In spite of the country’s rich biodiversity, international obligations and growing anthropogenic pressures, nature conservation efforts remain insufficient. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, these floods killed more than 20 people and displaced a further 90,000 and resulted in billions of dollars worth of damage across the region. The floods are estimated to have cost the country some 15 per cent of overall GDP in lost output and damages.",15,True
bbca33f,"Challenges that remain include the need for further and more explicit prioritisation of biodiversity within development finance portfolios and programming, by better capturing the synergies with climate and other environmental and development objectives. The persistent limitations in individual expertise, human resources and organisational capacity and a lack of funding for biodiversity in partner countries also hinder the continuity of positive change initiated by development co-operation activities beyond project lifetimes. Doing so in a more consistent manner would also facilitate comparison of experiences across countries and their effectiveness, and an exchange of lessons learned. This challenge is due in part to the lack of consistent data and indicators to develop baselines and to monitor and report on progress towards achieving mainstreaming goals and targets. In terms of responses, further consideration on how to monitor and evaluate mainstreaming efforts across the full range of responses, namely inputs, process, outputs, outcomes and impacts, would be useful.",15,True
2a633eb,"Building on the success of the PPCDAm, the government launched a similar programme to control deforestation in the Cerrado biome. In addition to strict monitoring and enforcement, further reducing deforestation will increasingly require making sustainable agriculture and forest management more attractive than illegal logging and land grabbing, and ensuring that sustainable practices provide a viable income source for traditional communities (CEPAL et al., Concessions still cover less than 1% of the eligible forest area, mainly because of red tape, high transaction costs, lack of infrastructure and land tenure conflicts. Many rural communities do not have the knowledge or means to adopt sustainable forest practices or to compete in concession processes. Much of the international finance is used through extrabudgetary funds, including the innovative Amazon Fund. Established in 2008 and managed by the BNDES in co-ordination with the MMA, the fund invests in deforestation prevention and sustainable forest use, thereby contributing to reducing GHG emissions.",15,True
1c0b3f6,"The intention is to have a pragmatic focus on the site level, using case studies, information exchange between managers and good engagement with local communities. Further options for synergies are joint preparation for COPs for the two conventions, and encouraging a greater exchange of expertise - both scientific and managerial - to supplement one another’s knowledge and avoid duplication. A case study in the Capacity building section also describes an IUCN-led project to support managers of jointly designated sites (Case study 43, pg.",15,False
7eaaa03,"Known poaching activity accounts for a high percentage of illegally killed elephants in Central and Eastern Africa, with lower rates in Western and Southern Africa. The chief transit points were found in central Chad, Lubumbashi, the DRC, as well as in the centre of the country, Uganda, Nairobi, Kenya, Lilongwe, Malawi, Beitbridge, Zimbabwe (on the border of South Africa) and Lusaka and Livingstone in Zambia (Nellemann et al. To adapt to this challenge a coordinated and comprehensive strategy is needed that both reduces demand for illegal products and enhances enforcement capacities.4 Law enforcement agencies would benefit from access to strategic intelligence, which enhances the capacity to interpret trends and reevaluate on the ground tactics before the traffickers can adapt. It is important to build capacity amongst national law enforcement agencies and local monitoring networks.",15,True
7e86300,"For example, the personnel of a given protected area focus not only on issues related to that area, but also assume thematic responsibilities across the entire mosaic. The mosaic structure helps address environmental and socio-economic challenges, many of which are common to all protected areas, and facilitates the resolution of conflicts arising in border areas. Such conflicts are often linked to the monitoring and control of natural resource use. While these are mostly carried out for community consumption as traditional activities, product sales to commercial companies are increasing, turtle trafficking, for example, has become a major challenge in the region. Enforcement of park regulations has caused many families to move to the neighbouring extractive reserve, where natural resource use is permitted. This plan probably has too many potentially conflicting objectives and has not been fully implemented.",15,True
cbaa293,"Abstract   Research method is a way of conducting research, a sort of package of strategies for gathering data. Method is not the same as methodology, and writing two separate chapters for each of these will help to ensure that the difference between them is maintained, but this is not necessary. You will make your own decisions regarding whether to address both in the same chapter or not. It is also useful to have a section in this chapter headed Technique, such as doing a survey or interviewing research participants. Some of the more common methods in qualitative research are case study, ethnography, document analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative enquiry. The selection of method will be informed by the methodology you have selected, and you will address issues of validity and trustworthiness as these pertain to the ways in which you employ the method selected.",16,False
9ea6a67,"The new media rhetoric, with its emphasis on radical breaks from old media, often masks the degree to which continuity goes hand-in-hand with change. Moreover, the industry’s vision of convergence ignores the competing versions of, and struggles over, the digital future. Against this background, this article focuses on an inter-media site, broadcasters’ websites, seeks to identify the changes and continuities in the notion of the audience, and interprets these in the light of inter-media competition. Using a variant of discourse analysis, which makes hyperlinks its unit of analysis, this study has identified six understandings of the audience online: spectators, fans, consumers, citizens, students, and cybernauts. These reveal that television has merely expanded online, but not really changed its understandings of audiences, suggesting that in its struggle for dominance, television has chosen to stamp the internet with the televisual, rather than making full use of the internet’s potential.",16,False
0673d64,"The approach of ethics from the perspective of epistemic autonomy comes to bring together the professional concerned with the ethical reflection on his own practice and his own epistemological, ethical and ethical horizon, with those of the professional ethic who are addressing the ethical significance of practice in the various fields of social research, no more. This editorial proposes a number of directions of interest in the field of ethics in social science research, as the preferred domains, without being exclusive to the on-going Journal of Ethics in Social Studies.",16,False
9c15e7d,"In this article we argue that efforts in Indonesia to improve access to justice for the disadvantaged would greatly benefit from a pragmatic approach that takes local circumstances of custom, values and social relations into account at least as much as legal reform and bureaucratic transparency. We maintain that in post-Suharto Indonesia ‘justice’ can be conceptualised as the inverse of injustice and is manifested in terms of sovereign interests. Ideal justice, such as associated with rule of law implementing programs, assumes a functioning of government and judiciary that might bring about such results. Building on our own research as well as on the articles in this special issue we argue that engaging with the role and meaning of justice should involve solid ethnography of justice-seekers' life-worlds, understanding of the strategies and institutions that provide justice, and paying attention to the networks and interactions that connect actors in an ever moving field.",16,True
5a23044,"This chapter investigates the analytically distorting effects sustained by international corruption rankings of treating corruption as a phenomenon bounded within national units. It questions the resulting understanding that corruption is disproportionately a problem of the developing world, characterised by direct unmediated transfers between bribe-givers and bribe-takers. Instead, the chapter offers a more transnational networked perspective on corruption, premised on the importance of professional intermediaries in facilitating illicit finance, the blurring of legal and illegal capital flows, and the globalisation of the individual via multiple claims of residence and citizenship. These trends are evidenced by a survey of the main components of the relevant transnational networks (shell companies, foreign real estate, and investor citizenship programmes). The chapter also includes a vignette study of the transnational dimensions of corruption involving Chinese individuals and the corresponding response of the Chinese government in internationalising its law enforcement strategies.",16,True
8172bb4,"Immigrants perform better in import/export industries than generally in independent business. The usual explanation addresses their overseas social networks. Extensive network connections abroad enable immigrants to reduce the daunting transaction costs that otherwise bedevil SMEs in international trade. Accepting that prevailing view, this research obtains evidence regarding the actual social network ties that Iranian immigrant entrepreneurs in Los Angeles had with trading partners abroad. However, instead of looking at connections between the Iranians and their homeland, we examined instead their social connections with other locations in the Iranian international diaspora. Although preliminary and sketchy, this evidence tends to confirm the importance of personal social contacts abroad, but it also shows that Iranian traders still reported many collection problems overseas and, as a result, had undertaken legal strategies of self-protection.",16,False
7f033c0,"Gender scholars have argued that legal reforms against violence position women as victims in need of state help. Using data collected from 22 months of participant observation with survivors of domestic violence in India, I urge academics to re-theorize the relationship between legal reforms and women’s citizenship during an era of neoliberal governance. Burdened with administrative tasks, Indian law enforcement personnel manage new rights claims by displacing regulatory duties onto survivors and caseworkers. Women who have access to women’s organizations are able to take advantage of these changes and “save” themselves and other women from violence. This article shows how neoliberal governmentality, when combined with women’s organizing, has the potential to restructure women’s relationship to the state.",16,True
0cc4a26,"AbstractThis article examines the school choices of families who have recently experienced downward mobility during the economic crisis in Spain. Based on semi-structured interviews we analyse the educational strategies of the families in a Bourdieusian framework, focusing on how they cope with the loss of their perceived social status. Prior to the crisis, these families of working-class origin improved their social position as a result of their success in economic capital accumulation with a humble increase in social and cultural capital. Our research suggests that the concerns of families confronted with downward social mobility are manifested in tensions related to their school choice in terms of their strategies of resistance and negotiation with regards to the ownership, social composition and corresponding perceived quality of the school. School can symbolically represent the last resort, an indispensable investment in one’s own future and that of the next generation.",16,False
a79f0a8,"Economic theory suggests that the enhanced product market competition of deregulation reduces employers' ability to discriminate when hiring. Recent studies of the effect of deregulation on racial employment in the naturally competitive trucking industry find that deregulation increased minority employment. This study examines the effect of deregulation on racial employment in the airline industry. Because deregulation transformed airlines from wasteful service competition to rigorous price competition, deregulation's effect on racial hiring in this continuously competitive industry is not apparent. This study finds that deregulation only modestly changed the racial composition of major airline occupations, which suggests that the change in market structure as a result of deregulation may largely determine the effect of regulatory reform on the racial composition of an industry. © 2001 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.",16,True
e022181,"Knowledge management (KM) remains an anomaly in most corporations today. Critics call KM a fad of the 1990s, whereas supporters claim KM is actively evolving. Our work examines the disciplinary rhetoric of KM: how is it that practitioners of KM seek to legitimize their field in the corporate world? We focus on practitioners in the aerospace industry and their forum. We argue that this forum serves as a hub for constructing KM's legitimacy. Our two year ethnography traces the rhetorical strategies utilized by informants in and out of a professional community to legitimize KM as discipline in the aerospace industry.",16,False
83a9463,"AbstractIn the context of an increased attention to issues of participation, legitimacy, transparency and accountability in the field of environmental politics and policy, collaborative governance arrangements have been promoted to rearticulate the interactions between experts, policy-makers and citizens. This article discusses the relationship between the democratization of environmental governance and the democratization of expertise by focusing on two influential frameworks developed in the field of Science and Technology Studies: the framework of post-normal science, as elaborated by Funtowicz and Ravetz, and the notion of co-production developed by Jasanoff. By discussing in details the original formulations of these concepts, and by reviewing works adopting the two frameworks in the fields of climate science and policy, we discuss their potential contribution to the analysis of the politics of science in the context of environmental policy-making. We suggest that dynamics and outputs of the knowledge...",16,True
7217f4f,"The article delineates the shifting forms of minority governance that took shape after 1989 in solving Roma related affairs and its ambiguous effects on the ground. I argue that, after 1989, the new social and public policies adopted a more neoliberal trend in solving Romani affairs through processes of decentralization, public-private partnerships and mobilization of civil society (Roma) organizations as key tools for empowering and social inclusion of Romani communities, abandoning old governmental programs focused on discipline, control and policing. However, as we will see in the Romanian case, these processes and policies had ambiguous effects and often have gone together with a diminishing of democratic accountability and control of Roma related affairs by state/public institutions and with the devolution of responsibilities to non-governmental and human rights organizations, Roma representatives from public institutions and communities themselves (see also van Baar 2011a).",16,True
a77d8e6,"Emotions have remained under-addressed in scholarship on public memorial art, particularly with sexuality content. This case study on the Amsterdam-based Homomonument attends to this gap by differentiating emotions according to multi-scalar, multi-temporal and multi-semiotic dimensions of everyday lived experiences of sexual citizenship. Based on discourse analysis of secondary materials and social media coverage, supplemented with auto-ethnographic experience, the study explores how present-day feelings of respect, agitation and celebration about Homomonument are mediated at intersecting levels of the body, local community, broader society and emergent virtual community spaces particularly. Such understanding requires critical interfaces with reminiscences, contemporary values and normativities, and future imaginaries. Specifically, this paper puts in perspective how Homomonument operates as queer micropublic: a space for intercultural encounter and ‘queerying’ sexual difference. This appears to be a multifaceted meaningful process, too: Homomonument ambiguously holds contesting, reconciling, indifferent and empathic sentiments alongside belongings and sexual identity expressions in quotidian life.",16,False
ea9c230,"During the second half of the XVIII Century, close to the structural changes generated by the Borbons’ reforming institution, there appeared new social control mechanisms that tried to hold individuals so as to assign them a role within a circle of civil institutions with persuasive, preventive and/or coercive character. Cordoba del Tucuman jurisdiction, the southernmost of the Empire at that time, was also subjected to the impositions of these mechanisms, implemented by its first Governor, Mayor Rafael de Sobremonte since 1785. This paper will enquire into the characteristics these mechanisms acquired as regards women in Cordoba del Tucuman under the government of Mayor Rafael de Sobremonte since 1785.",16,False
429476f,"Critical and systemic thinking and practice can be used as a vehicle for governance to address knowledge and its implications for those who are excluded from the protection of nationality, citizenship, human rights and animal rights (by virtue of their age, their place of birth, their gender, level of education, income, ability or species). The way to achieve sustainable governance is to enable decision makers to become more mindful or more conscious of the implications of their decisions. Once it is realized that idealism and pragmatism are one, because of the ‘boomerang effect’ (Beck, 1992) of social and environmental injustice, greater progress towards sustainable futures can be achieved. This paper based on a manuscript argues for participatory governance that appreciates diversity to the extent that it supports sustainable social and environmental futures. It confronts terrorism, hegemony and cruelty as challenges for systemic, sustainable governance and international relations.",16,True
7b56b2e,"ABSTRACTThe rise of the BRICS countries – Brazil, Russia, China, India, and South Africa – has called into question the future of Western dominance in world markets and geopolitics. However, the developmental trajectories of the BRICS countries are shot through with socio-economic fault lines that relegate large numbers of people to the margins of current growth processes, where life is characterized by multiple and overlapping vulnerabilities. These socio-economic fault lines have, in turn, given rise to political convulsions across the BRICS countries, ranging from single-issue protests to sustained social movements oriented towards structural transformation. This article presents an innovative theoretical framework for theorizing the emerging political economy of development in the BRICS countries centred on neo-liberalization, precarity, and popular struggles. It discusses the contributions to this special issue in terms of how they illuminate the intersection between neo-liberalization, precarity, an...",16,False
991007a,"Scholars studying Sino-Russian relations point at the informal division of labour between Russia and China in global governance. Russia remains active in international security governance, whereas China has increased the level of its participation in areas of economic, financial and environmental governance. These differences are ascribed to the different potential of both states as well as their related varied scope of interests in a well-functioning global governance system. However, this division of labour has evolved for the past couple of years. Beijing increased its engagement with international security governance, while Moscow lost some of its (already limited) interest in such areas as environmental or economic governance. This chapter aims at exploring this shift and its implications. Rather than analysing Sino-Russian relations in distinct areas of global governance, it proposes a different approach and identifies three patterns of interactions between the two countries: direct cooperation, parallel activities and contradictory/divergent activities.",16,True
42e4820,"From Empire to Community: A New Approach to International     Relations.  By Amitai Etzioni. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.     272p. $29.95.  Amitai Etzioni is a seasoned political sociologist and leading voice     in the communitarian program to offset the narcissistic and alienating     individualism of liberal modernity. Communitarians emphasize the affective     bonds that make community an indispensable feature of the human condition     and, thus, the local conditions within which individual human beings are     best able to understand and act on the common good. Notwithstanding     republican antecedents, communitarians have effectively abandoned the     universalistic tendencies of cosmopolitan Enlightenment republicanism to     rights-minded liberals. In doing so, most communitarians have neglected     international relations.",16,False
e51613c,"In this introduction, game studies is argued to be a force of innovation for cultural studies. While game studies, as it has developed over the last 10 years, fits well within cultural studies' methodology and theory, it does more than benefit from cultural studies as a 'mother discipline'. Game studies proves itself to be a strong force, especially in its productive use of political economy to analyse games and gaming as a (new) cultural form. Building on a descriptive taxonomy of games and gaming by both genre and 'platform', this is an introduction to games and gaming for those with a cultural studies background. While ideally, game studies will develop also as cultural critique, this is a far cry from dominant practice in the gamer community. Gamers tend to be 'hand-in-glove' with the industry. It is high time for game studies to turn a critical eye on itself.",16,False
133936a,"Not since the civil rights era has enacted national legislation been fought so fiercely as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Political, ideological, and social forces have mobilized to undermine the ACA at numerous fronts, including the Supreme Court, Congress, state governments, and the court of public opinion. The ACA has survived a constitutional challenge, a presidential re-election, numerous repeal votes in the House, and avowedly obstreperous state regulators. But it has not yet run the full gauntlet of lethal strategies. The latest line of attack is a collection of orchestrated lawsuits seeking to keep the federal exchange from paying any premium tax subsidies.        What if the challengers eventually prevail? What would happen then?",16,False
378fda0,"While a number of scholars argue that classical realism is conspicuously similar to critical international relations, this article takes an issue with such an interpretation. It does not challenge the observation that both approaches are comparable when it comes to ethical concerns and a related critique of modernity, but it puts forth an argument that they differ fundamentally when it comes to their basic intellectual motivation and purpose. This also makes classical realism more ready to formulate normative judgment. To articulate what provides for the ethical impetus in classical realism, the study turns to the work of Stephen Turner and his collaborators who illuminate Weberian sources of classical realist social science. Adopting the category of analyticism from Patrick Jackson, it further puts forth that normative judgment is linked to classical realism’s inherent ontological doubt, a feature it compensates for by focusing on epistemology necessitating constant engagement with empirical reality as a...",16,False
a7e4a77,"This chapter places the fundamental principles of civil justice under four headings: (1) regulating access to court and to justice, (2) ensuring the fairness of process as a shared responsibility of the court and the parties, (3) maintaining a speedy and efficient process, and (4) achieving just outcomes. It shows how Article 6(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights, now directly applicable in English courts through the Human Rights Act 1998, has contributed to the development of these principles. Among topics covered are: duty to give a reasoned judgment, abolition of the House of Lords (Judicial) and creation of the United Kingdom Supreme Court, the striking out procedure, legal advice privilege and in house counsel. It places the ALI/UNIDROIT Principles of Civil Procedure within this framework as best practices.",16,True
2fd09f7,"This article considers recognition and enforcement of orders of the Family Division of the High Court varying a trust, or declaring it to be a sham and the assets held for its settlor, where the trustee and trust property are located outside the court’s jurisdiction. This will depend on private international law principles in the trustees’ home jurisdiction, which, assuming the trustee is not based in a Brussels Regulation or Lugano Convention State, are likely to be based on, and similar to, common law principles applicable in England and Wales, which is the focus of this article.",16,False
d7236ae,"This paper focuses on the role of discourse as a means of conferring identity and reducing task-related anxiety. Seeing discourse in this essentially defensive light leads to a new perspective on resistance to organizational change, portraying it as a threat to the defense structure of established discourses. To illustrate, the nascent discourse of electronic government will be examined. Although a potent new discourse, e-government clashes strongly with the discursively embedded social defense systems of local government. A case study is reported in a UK local authority. Drawing on actor network theory, it is shown how the hegemonic influence of the social defenses translated the radical rhetoric of e-government into an operational discourse that was bland and unthreatening.",16,False
ae3f35e,"The text aims to reflect the experience of being a scholarship student in the discipline of nursing management in health services II, in the Undergraduate Program in Nursing at the University of Santa Cruz do Sul – UNISC. This discipline occurs in the seventh semester of the course, being held in a Basic Public Health Unit. Practice happens in groups of six to eight students and during the same period of time there are related themes which are developed in the classroom. This method helps professors and students, allowing them to observe and interact on the way of organizing and managing the Basic Health Unit, in order to be able to collaborate with the necessary improvements. We conclude that it contributes with the professional formation of the student scholarship and academic, guiding him/her to a more comprehensive look at management and decision making in developing health policy",16,False
918d3b6,"In this paper, we present and test a theory of how political connectedness (often linked to political corruption) affects corporate governance and productive efficiency of firms. Our model predicts that underdeveloped democratic institutions that do not punish political corruption result in political connectedness of firms that in turn has a negative effect on performance. We test this prediction on an almost complete population of Slovenian joint-stock companies with 100 or more employees. Using the data on supervisory board structure, together with balance sheet and income statement data for 2000–2010, we show that a higher share of politically connected supervisory board members leads to lower productivity.",16,True
827f54a,"This study examines whether subject-specific teacher certification and academic degrees are related to teacher quality. The research design exploits contemporaneous, within-student comparisons made possible by a unique feature of the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). Specifically, NELS:88 contains subject-specific outcomes for eighth-grade students in two subjects as well as data on their teachers for those subjects. The analysis of these data indicates that assignment to a subject-certified teacher is associated with higher test scores. However, these gains appear to be concentrated in social studies and mathematics. Furthermore, the authors also find that subject-certified teachers are not more effective at promoting the intellectual engagement of their students but are more likely to have negative opinions of a given student's performance.",16,False
65d1b51,"The innovative practice that resulted from the Ottawa Charter challenges public health knowledge about programming and evaluation. Specifically, there is a need to formulate program theory that embraces social determinants of health and local actors' mobilization for social change. Likewise, it is imperative to develop a theory of evaluation that fosters reflexive understanding of public health programs engaged in social change. We believe advances in contemporary social theory that are founded on a critique of modernity and that articulate a coherent theory of practice should be considered when addressing these critical challenges.",16,False
220e136,"The article defines the fundamental right to petition in the Chilean legal system, considering its constitutional and Human Rights International Law sources, and focuses in the analysis of its poor regulation of the legislative development of said right, outside of the specific field of the government and its agencies.",16,True
c71eabd,"For decades, home studies has been developed across a wide range of disciplines, including ethnography and anthropology, human and cultural geography, history, and social research in architecture and design. Transnational migrations also found their own specific niche in this multidisciplinary research area. Still, in migration studies of home numerous localized but isolated case studies predominate. This book by sociologist Paolo Boccagni is a long-awaited first attempt at generalizing, systematizing, and conceptualizing more deeply existing scholarship on the migrationhome nexus.     DOI:  10.25285/2078-1938-2017-9-3-160-163",16,False
713452e,"ABSTRACTThere has been a recent emergence of scholarship on the use of fun in the college statistics classroom, with at least 20 modalities identified. While there have been randomized experiments that suggest that fun can enhance student achievement or attitudes in statistics, these studies have generally been limited to one particular fun modality or have not been limited to the discipline of statistics. To address the efficacy of fun items in teaching statistics, a student-randomized experiment was designed to assess how specific items of fun may cause changes in statistical anxiety and learning statistics content. This experiment was conducted at two institutions of higher education with different and diverse student populations. Findings include a significant increase in correct responses to questions among students who were assigned online content with a song insert compared with those assigned content alone.",16,False
60c6247,"Amartya Sen’s comparative approach to justice makes clear that notions of justice are shaped by human agency and experience, and both his focus on the ‘internal view’ of well-being that emphasizes suffering as a central feature of illness and his recognition that social and cultural factors shape perceived injustice are critical to this approach. However, Sen questionably depicts the contributions of anthropological research to this project as limited to ‘the sensory dimension of ill-health.’ Focusing on mental health in the context of global justice, I argue that Sen’s treatise on justice can be refined through an ethnographic method that synchronizes attention to (1) cultural knowledge and social relations in ecological settings, (2) fundamental human needs, and (3) levels of analytic specificity involving situations, categories, and events. This method integrates analysis of internal phenomenology and external constraints of political economy and ideology. To demonstrate I discuss three cases involving...",16,False
62749a2,"In this article, we seek to advance scholarship on the origins and consequences of policy devolution by analyzing state decisions to give local authorities control over welfare policy. The first part of our analysis explores the political forces that systematically influence state decisions to cede policy control to lower-level jurisdictions. In this context, we propose a general Racial Classification Model of how race influences social policy choice. Our findings support this model as well as social control perspectives on welfare provision. Building on these results, we then show how modest but consistent racial effects on policy choices concatenate to produce large disparities in the overall policy regimes that racial groups encounter in the federal system. The empirical findings illuminate the fundamental role that federalism plays in the production of contemporary racial disparities and in the recent turn toward neoliberal and paternalist policies in American poverty governance.",16,True
434169c,"Objective: The study's objectives were to characterize the participation of patients in nursing care and in choosing integrative and complementary therapies, and then to analyze this participation from the perspective of nursing care ethics. Method: Qualitative research conducted with patients receiving ICT in public health facilities where there are nurses to apply these therapies. Approved by the Institutional Review Boards of the facilities involved. The sensitive creative method and discourse analysis were used. Results: When the autonomy and participation of subjects were considered as citizenship issues, the discussion concerning their right to choose among services provided is resumed. The right as an ethical condition implies having appropriate access to information regarding different therapeutic possibilities, this depends on broadening the subjects' understanding and how they act upon the world and themselves. Conclusion: It is important not to lose sight of the ICT essence of integrality, its principles and purposes.",16,False
ff7ec41,"Administrative data from North Carolina are used to explore the extent to which that state's relatively sophisticated school-based accountability system has exacerbated the challenges that schools serving low-performing students face in retaining and attracting high-quality teachers. Most clear are the adverse effects on retention rates, and hence on teacher turnover, in such schools. Less clear is the extent to which that higher turnover has translated into a decline in the average qualifications of the teachers in the low-performing schools. Other states with more primitive accountability systems can expect even greater adverse effects on teacher turnover in low-performing schools. © 2004 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.",16,False
c3dc495,"Modern constitutional law has developed various means of supervising and guaranteeing the effective implementation of the constitution. The principal means of judicial control of constitutionality is judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation enacted by Parliament, or constitutional judicial review. This has become a dominant feature of modern constitutionalism, and recent decades have seen a global expansion of such judicial review mechanisms. This article considers the phenomenon and institution of constitutional judicial review from historical and comparative perspectives. The different models, structures and forms of constitutional judicial review are discussed with reference to the historical contexts in which they have evolved, their modes of operation and their underlying rationales. The possible tension between constitutional judicial review and democracy is also considered.",16,True
0b83f81,"Supranational human rights bodies are generally moving away from a practice of issuing declaratory orders and deferring to the state on the means to comply with their decisions to the issuance of more specific reparation orders, including requiring guarantees of non-repetition such as law reform at the national level. Notwithstanding this general evolution, in this article I suggest that they have not had as significant an impact on strengthening the national remedial framework where torture is alleged. Focusing on the practice and jurisprudence of the European Court, I identify key factors that support this finding and suggest ways in which they can do more to accommodate the objective of strengthening the national remedial framework for torture while continuing to prioritise their role as forums for individual access to justice.",16,True
0d5f479,"What are the ethical implications of the shortcomings of liberal peacebuilding operations? This article addresses the problem by investigating the normative premises of liberal peacebuilding and its critics. Three ideal types of peacebuilding are singled out to illuminate the normative logic of current ‘revisionist’ proposals. These are: ‘re-liberal peacebuilding’ which prescribes a more coercive approach, ‘social peacebuilding’ that emphasizes local agency and the promotion of socioeconomic rights, and ‘multicultural peacebuilding’ that roots peace in indigenous norms and institutions. These alternatives are assessed with regard to their ability to promote both the autonomy and the basic needs of the affected population. It is concluded that only ‘social peacebuilding’ passes this test. It exemplifies a model of global governance where a cosmopolitan human rights agenda is consistent with the communitarian defence of political autonomy and cultural diversity.",16,True
303c379,"From the analysis of the reasons in the The Gambia v. Myanmar case, which discusses in the International Court of Justice the application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, in the face of the genocidal acts against the Burmese Rohingya, attributable to the government of Myanmar, this paper supports the hypothesis that there would be a certain influence of the Ubuntu philosophy in Gambia’s decision to refer the case to international justice. The values inherent in Ubuntu, such as the need to promote justice, peace and interdependence among human beings universally, would be able to explain, at least in part, both Gambia’s transcontinental empathy for the Rohingya people and the reasons why the country mobilized resources to bring the debate about the genocide of that people to the jurisdiction of the ICJ, even though the case did not directly affect their sovereign interests.",16,True
dacc518,"This paper examines the complex relationships between gender, education, extremism and security. After defining extremism and fundamentalism, it looks first at the relationship of gender to violence generally, before looking specifically at how this plays out in more extremist violence and terrorism. Religious fundamentalism is also shown to have gendered concerns. The paper concludes with drawing together the educational implications of these analyses, arguing for a politicised education to promote both national and personal security. Five components are proposed: acceptance of ambiguity rather than absolutism and single truths, a secular basis in human rights, breaking down ‘otherness’, reconciliation rather than revenge, and free speech and humour.",16,True
ec5f0f8,"Testimonies of wartime sexual violence contribute to the recognition of rape as a serious human rights violation. Although acknowledgement and justice are imperative to ending silence and impunity, this article critiques some commonly held therapeutic assumptions about disclosure through examining the way so-called “unspeakable” events are communicated through legal discourse. In this article, the author explores the inherent limitations of language for bearing witness to wartime rape, specifically focusing on international war crimes tribunals. The author argues that trials contribute to the impossibility of bearing witness through both the appropriation of trauma and the failure of law to accommodate traumatic experiences.",16,True
91631d4,"How do we reach a wide variety of possible readers? This commentary notes various ways in which academic information has been organized on the Web, stressing the usefulness of different formats and approaches. The Social Science Research Network provides a way for publications to become widely known at an early stage. Such Web-based facilities for one-stop searching are needed for academics and policy makers interested in health services, health policy, public health and population health.",16,False
262f92c,"Freedom of the press in the perspective of the criminal justice is the use of the provisions of the Criminal Code, it is not limitation or restraint on freedom of the press, because the provision was only a tool that is used for the testing of limitative conduct a press working process. Testing can be done by using specific parameters as stipulated in the convention on the freedom of information, such as the press can not be prosecuted in criminal law except when to do positive things like contempt, sedition, blasphemy, pornography, a lie news, disturb national security and public order and statements that impede the fair administration of justice. Therefore, in press freedom, presenting news must be based on features news journalist code of ethics that exist",16,True
80cac82,"The first part of the chapter focuses on the legislative measures taken by the Coalition to restore civil liberties, notably under the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012. While some of the most-criticised measures taken by the New Labour governments have been repealed or limited, it is argued that these changes do little to protect civil liberties. Indeed, the latter are endangered by the as-yet unrealised promise to repeal the Human Rights Act and, most significantly, by the extensive surveillance powers of the British government and its allies (both political and corporate) which seriously threaten the right to privacy. The second part of the chapter focuses on crime prevention measures, concluding that very little has changed in practice since the New Labour years.",16,True
8194a81,"International law relating to child soldiers is of recent origin. As far as universal instruments are concerned, the Child Soldiers Protocol is compared to Article 77(2) of the first Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions, Article 4(3)(c) of the second Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions, Articles 38 and 39 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Articles 8(2)(b)(xxvi) and (e)(vii) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and Article 3 of ILO Convention No 182 on the worst forms of child labour. In 1989, provisions on children in armed conflicts were incorporated into the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). This international human rights instrument is ratified by all States except the United States and Somalia.Keywords: child labour, Child Soldiers Protocol, CRC, Geneva Conventions, Universal instruments",16,True
4e9c05f,"Abstract Concerned that public schooling leads to mediocrity rather than meritocracy, many middle-class parents are seeking other options such as private schools, alternative public schools, and charter schools to develop their children's academic, creative, and athletic talents. Based on a mixed method investigation of school choice among parents (N = 1,871) in the two largest cities in the Province of Alberta, this paper examines the logic, values, and concerns that inform parental decision-making and the impact of social class differentiation in the process of selection of elementary schools. Issues surrounding the placement of gifted students in various school options are discussed.",16,False
2550268,"In considering the morality of public policy, including child protection policy, one must go beyond the logic of the content underlying moral judgments. It is at least as important to discuss the breadth of the circle of care—the scope of application of norms of human dignity, as illustrated by human rights law. In essence, we must exercise due care in determining not only what human decency demands but also to whom the Golden Rule applies. This point was vividly illustrated by the Trump administration’s barbaric policy of separation of parents and children as a deterrent to illegal immigration to the United States. In building more sensible and sensitive child protection policy, we must remain vigilant in affirming the humanity of children in general and, in particular, those who live in exceptionally difficult circumstances or whose families are in groups especially vulnerable to injustice.",16,True
8376c7c,"This article will explore the dilemmas that Albania has been experiencing in implementing the rule of law during the past two decades with particular attention to the political institutional obstacles, including the difficulties of establishing an independent judiciary and the pervasiveness of corruption. The concept of the rule of law will be the lens through which the difficulties of the democratization process will be examined. The lack of transparency in the legislature and more broadly in the political decision-making process, and the divisive and leader-dominated political party system are two additional obstacles that Albania is facing in consolidating democracy. Since its first post-communist election in 1991, Albania has experienced challenges in conducting legitimate elections that meet international standards. The political and cultural environment where these political institutions operate and from which they have been constructed will provide the backdrop for analysis.",16,True
64da140,"Starting from the position that officer accountability is a core value of American constitutionalism, this article reassesses MARBURY V. MADISON in light of the indictable acts connected to the nondelivery of Marbury’s commission. First, it reads Chief Justice Marshall’s opinion against the background of personal and political hostility among the principals, including between Marbury and President Jefferson. Second, it identifies avenues of further redress open to Marbury before and after the Supreme Court’s refusal of the mandamus order, and it considers why they were not pursued. Finally, having identified alternative procedural traditions on which Marshall could have drawn, and reviewed decisions by state and federal judges in analogous suits against officers, it concludes that MARBURY'S deepest contribution was to elevate the principle of jurisdiction over the imperative of remedy in constitutional decision making.",16,True
e13e1aa,"The chapter looks at when arms transfers to armed groups will be illegal under international law, when the use of certain arms by armed groups will be illegal and what are the factors which allow us to consider armed groups bound by these prohibitions at the international level. The situation in Syria is highlighted and there are references to the ongoing negotiations at the United Nations for an Arms Trade Treaty. Particular attention is paid to the issue of the obligations of armed groups under human rights law and recent developments which suggest that such groups are bound by international law even where, as in the early stages of the Syria fighting, the militia or armed group are not necessarily in control of territory or in a situation of armed conflict.",16,True
556b7fe,"▪ Abstract The results of over 70 years of African Diasporic bioarchaeology are discussed and explained as emerging from distinct interests and traditions of African Diasporan studies, sociocultural anthropology, history, physical anthropology, and archaeology, in that chronological order. Physical anthropology is the core discipline of African-American bioarchaeology, yet it has been the least informed by cultural and historical literatures. Forensic approaches to bioarchaeology construct a past that fails to be either cultural or historical, while biocultural approaches are emerging that construct a more human history of African Diasporic communities. The involvement of African Americans, both as clients and as sources of scholarship, has begun to transform bioarchaeology as in the example of the New York African Burial Ground. The social history of the field examined here emphasizes the scholarship of diasporans themselves, and critiques a bioarchaeology that, until recently, has had little relevance t...",16,False
8586960,"Violators of the criminal laws can be found in all age categories, including those defined as elderly offenders (65 and older). Older offenders have been convicted of almost all of the same types of crimes as those in other age categories, including violent crimes, such as murder, rape, armed robbery, and aggravated assault, property crimes, such as theft, destruction of property, and fraud, and crimes generally associated with organized crime or white-collar crime, such as extortion, money laundering, bribery, and corruption as well as being convicted of public order crimes, such as public intoxication and loitering. The severity of the crimes of the older offenders ranges from the most serious felony crime, such as aggravated murder, to minor misdemeanor crimes, such as petty theft. Many, perhaps the majority of older offenders, are situational offenders, while others are considered chronic or habitual offenders.",16,False
3277b0f,"Corruption has serious economic and social costs and can undermine government legitimacy. Economic analysis can help one understand the incentives for bribery and extortion and the deterrent effect of the law. Such analysis suggests that the law in many jurisdictions ought to be redesigned. Penalties are poorly tied to the marginal benefits of bribery. Small bribes often are more effectively deterred than larger ones because penalties are not tied to the perpetrators' gains. Economic analysis also highlights the tension between obtaining evidence to bring a case ex post and deterrence ex ante. Furthermore, enforcement programs have not incorporated bureaucratic structure in a sophisticated way, and in many countries the criminal law only applies to individuals, not firms. In short, economic analysis can help guide the reform debate by proposing workable law enforcement strategies for the control of bribery and extortion.",16,True
3db2280,"The impact of corporate governance on banking firms has been widely documented in the literature. Noticeably absent is an extensive examination of the impact of country governance on the efficiency of banking firms. This limitation is surprising, given the fact that the banking sector remains the most important channel for savings and allocations of credit in the economy. By using data on 454 Islamic and conventional banks from 19 countries offering Islamic banking and finance products and services, this chapter attempts to fill this demanding gap. We find that voice and accountability positively influence the efficiency of both Islamic and conventional banks. On the other hand, we observe the negative impact of political stability, absence of violence and control of corruption. The findings indicate that government effectiveness, regulatory quality and rule of law negatively influence the efficiency of conventional banks, but not so in the case of Islamic banks.",16,True
e2182d6,"How do strategies of state capture adapt to tight fiscal conditions? The article uses a historical institutionalist approach and content analysis to study the case of Greece. Three theoretically relevant patterns of institutional adaptation are unearthed: first, limited resources for state capture do indeed trigger self-limitation initiatives as expected, but these initiatives replace costly benefits with less costly ones. Second, different forms of capture have different implications for the terms of political competition. Third, there is a mutually reinforcing relationship between clientelism and corruption, which becomes pronounced in the creative ways by which strategies of capture adjust to shifting opportunities and constraints. Clients are appointed in state offices and extract bribes directly from citizens. ‘Client corruption’ replaces extraction from the state with extraction through the state, which is less costly for the public finances: the benefit the governing party gives to its clients is the ‘right’ to extract rents for themselves.",16,True
83d61e9,"Good governance—which includes accountability, transparency, an effective bureaucracy, regulatory quality, electoral competition, political checks and balances and rule of law—is considered the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development. The article discusses changes that have taken place in India with regard to governance reforms, focusing on reforms related to decentralisation. A review of available evidence does not provide any definitive conclusion about the effectiveness of decentralisation in facilitating democratic deepening and improving the responsiveness of government. In most cases, decentralisation has failed to bring popular participation and accountability to local government, thereby making it less responsive to citizens’ desires and less effective in delivering services. Appropriate institutions, rules and incentive mechanisms are needed to link the citizens with government. Capacity development of the citizens and conscious and combined efforts by govern...",16,True
b3df86f,"The aim of this study is to share interdisciplinary reflections on collective health conducted in the Collective Health discipline at the undergraduate level of a higher education institution in Rio Grande do Sul. This is a descriptive, exploratory and qualitative research, with forty and five students from the Collective Health discipline as participants. Data collection occurred through the performance of a concept map activity, being analyzed with approximations of Bardin's Content Analysis (2016). It was found that students understand the importance of collective health in their training contexts, inferring about important aspects identified in mental maps. The articulations between collective health and secondary themes stimulated the construction of effective and constructive problematizations about the theme with emphasis on interdisciplinary practices. Thus, the study enabled the exchange of information and comprehensive reflection on public health and the interdisciplinary performance of students.",16,False
b0c1d49,"This article examines two key components of the Australian Government’s data surveillance framework and critiques their impact on journalistic confidentiality. The 2015 mandatory data retention scheme and the 2018 telecommunications industry assistance scheme have been the subjects of considerable controversy and ongoing parliamentary reviews. The combined effect of these provisions is that journalists are unable to confidently fulfil their ethical obligation to maintain source confidentiality. The article recommends targeted reforms to more explicitly and appropriately balance the public interest in journalistic confidentiality (and relatedly, democracy, public accountability and the rule of law) against law enforcement and national security objectives.",16,True
d5da329,"Institutions require performance management system for themselves and their personnel to evaluate, benchmark, develop, and determine training needs in compliance with performance criteria as productivity, efficiency, and thriftiness. Contemporary public management, i.e., 5018 Public Finance Management and Control Act, adopting good governance principles as transparency, responsibility, accountability, and fairness, also attaches great importance to performance management. However, there is no performance management system employed by Turkish public management system. Therefore, performance audit is not performed. To this end, it is foreseen that perceptions of personnel be measured and survey be applied to a provincial unit of a public organization. Findings reveal that performance management is not supported by high-level management and is not related to human resource practices such as career management, training and development, job valuation, and a management style in compliance with good governance which is not adopted.",16,True
6823702,"This article is devoted to the application of law in the legal order of the Council of Europe. It presents guidelines for the decision-making process of the application of law applied in the legal area of the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Social Charter. The aim of this article is to present the characteristics of the decision-making process of the application of law in terms of human rights protection on European and supranational level, as well as the differences between such processes carried out on the basis of the ECHR and the ESC.",16,True
a107e17,"The COVID-19 pandemic forced higher education institutions to reexamine their modes of instruction for the Fall 2020 semester. Some institutions chose to re-open for in-person instruction, others chose online or hybrid modalities. While it is assumed that institutions took into account public health concerns when making the decision on how to reopen, other factors may have played a role. Leveraging mode of instruction data for 2,938 colleges and universities, this paper examines the political, epidemiological, economic, and social factors related to Fall 2020 reopening plans. Surprisingly, it finds no discernible relationship between that county-level or state-level COVID-19 case counts and college or university reopening plan. Furthermore, campus demographics - such as White student enrollment - and state political characteristics - such as Governor's party - were related to campus mode of instruction decisions for the Fall 2020 semester.",16,False
5f19dd5,"AbstractThis paper discusses the link between international migration and democratisation from an actor-oriented perspective on the basis of the mobilising efforts by key civil society actors engaged in the promotion of the rights of migrant workers through developing strategies towards movement building and by capitalising on political opportunities that have appeared on the global level. Being pitched at the global level and at organising patterns via the network form, the analytical framework developed takes as its starting point global justice perspectives and then builds upon insights from social movement and constructivist International Relations scholarship. It is argued that what is emerging are (1) movement practices in migrant rights networks which are putting forward increasingly coherent claims that transcend the conventional thinking about global governance and human rights (rights-assuming advocacy), and (2) that such practices are effectively transgressing interstate political arenas (parti...",16,True
5645547,"The Brazilian National AIDS Program is widely recognized as the leading example of an integrated HIV/AIDS prevention, care, and treatment program in a developing country. We critically analyze the Brazilian experience, distinguishing those elements that are unique to Brazil from the programmatic and policy decisions that can aid the development of similar programs in other low- and middle-income and developing countries.Among the critical issues that are discussed are human rights and solidarity, the interface of politics and public health, sexuality and culture, the integration of prevention and treatment, the transition from an epidemic rooted among men who have sex with men to one that increasingly affects women, and special prevention and treatment programs for injection drug users.",16,False
4dd6b18,"Birth registration is becoming an important arena of political mobilisation for human rights. Discourses about civil registration advanced in the civil society and academic circles tend to frame birth registration in citizenship terms, arguing that (a) a birth certificate is indispensable in realising the child’s right to a name, nationality and citizenship, and (b) both the delay in registering and failure to register a child's birth compound the social exclusion of that child. However, narratives that connect birth registration and social exclusion in a causal relationship are seldom premised on empirical evidence. Drawing on qualitative key informant interviews, this article examines how non-birth registration relates to social exclusion of children. Participants' narratives generated in Zimbabwe's Bindura District revealed that non-birth registration is entangled with multiple dimensions of social exclusion, potentially giving rise to marginalisation of children in various spheres of society.",16,True
56b9b5e,"The process of migration, whether forced or voluntary, often entails negotiating new social norms and traditions. It may mean that a person will have to learn another language and reconsider familiar perspectives on gender roles, parenting approaches, and many other social practices. These adjustments can be profoundly stressful and have implications for one's sense of physical, mental, cultural, spiritual, and social well-being. Migrants traveling as a family will likely experience the stress of migration and acculturation in different ways from individual migrants.      Keywords:    cultural diversity,  diaspora,  migration,  multiculturalism,  refugees",16,False
3541bcf,"In October 2015 Uruguay was elected as a Non-Permanent Member of the United Nations Security Council. This article analyses the messages of the Uruguayan government during the process of its investiture. The objective is to offer an analytical description of the discourses made by Uruguayan government officials before the designation. For this purpose, a new analytical tool is applied, which consists of the operationalization of the General Principles of International Law. It is found that the Uruguayan discourse privileges the international cooperation that focuses on human rights, multilateralism, and the involvement in Peacekeeping Operation. Additionally, it is found that the membership is a tool used by the government to seek agreements with the political opposition.",16,True
ec2e92e,"For multiculturalists who favour a relativist approach, globalization and the increasing interconnectedness of societies pose a threat to cultural diversity. In this paper we show, through an exploration of the work of Martha Nussbaum, that a viable universalist feminism can accommodate a thin and so defensible version of multiculturalism. Nussbaum's treatment of culture in relation to women's education and the cultivation of capacities for world citizenship fosters inclusion of norms and traditions from different ways of life, while leaving room for a critical perspective on them. On these grounds, there is considerable scope for cooperation between comparative education and feminist philosophy's liberal theorists.",16,False
9e8cc8b,"Based on accounts gathered from nine museums and four professional/policy-making bodies, as well as policy analysis, this article maps out and assesses the effects of and ways of experiencing the new managerialist mode of governance within the publicly funded museums in England, focusing specifically on performance management in museums. It will be argued that the performance management regime has impacted local authority museums and national museums in distinct ways, creating different professional/organisational cultures as a result. These impacts pertain specifically to the professional and organisational autonomy of museums, with significant differences between small local authority museums and large national museums. This has serious implications for the way different types of museum relate to new managerialism and their mode of functioning. Some of the negative and unintended impacts of the performance management regime have induced a reappraisal – initially championed by the art world – and a move ...",16,False
60e3025,"Africa Gender Equality Index 2015, African Development Bank, Abidjan, http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/ Documents/Publications/Afric an_Gender_Equality_lndex_2015-EN.pdf. Gender, Poverty and Environmental Indicators on African Countries, Vol XV, African Development Bank. Regional Road Map, OECD/SWAC, Paris, https://www.oecd.",17,False
c2abb42,"Mauritius covers a total land area of 720 square miles, and is almost entirely of volcanic origin, except for stretches of beaches, coral reefs and small patches of alluvium at the mouths of rivers. Pear-shaped, mountainous with its highest peak standing at 2,711 feet above sea level, Mauritius emerged from the ocean floor some 5 million years ago. Volcanic activity over thousands of years has given rise to varied types of soil.",17,False
ae88ea8,"This paper assesses the extent to which solutions under Dutch civil law complement and augment the public policy objectives underlying the criminalization of corruption in international business transactions. To this end, it explores the contractual and non-contractual consequences of contracts tainted by corruption as well as the rules of private international law that come into play with regard to such “corrupt” contracts under Dutch law.",17,False
782162d,"In either case, further monitoring and research are needed to understand the underlying causes. Indicators offer a measure of the effectiveness of actions in moving a system towards a more desirable state. For example, if body temperature decreases after taking a medicine, we conclude that the medicine has been effective in combating the disease. To accomplish this objective, indicators should provide an ability to assess cause-and-effect relations. They help policy makers and the public to understand the linkages and trade-offs between economic, environmental and social values in order to evaluate the long-term implications of current decisions and behaviour and to monitor progress towards sustainable development goals by establishing baseline conditions and trends.",17,True
121d535,"One important conclusion so far is that thorough information making use of real-time data, presented in an appropriate way, has a great potential to enhance confidence in the public transport system. Electronic boards giving real time visual information about vehicle movements had already been fitted at city centre stops. Later, audio announcement modules were added to make the real-time information available to blind and partially sighted people.",17,False
c50ed4a,"The paper reports a study that investigated the construction of a common identity in an online Italian forum of psychologists based on asynchronous CMC. Discourse analysis was carried out on 20 discussions, and three Interpretative Repertoires were identified: (i) Professional Boundaries, (ii) disempowered psychology and (iii) psychology and health, which refer to three recurrent modalities of constructing the psychological profession. The study suggests that a framework drawing on social constructionism and Bourdieu's critical theory can help understand some aspects of identity in, and across, communities of practice. The main conclusion is that analysing critically how identities are constructed in learning environments, virtual or not, allows reconsidering the role of the cultural context in the production of those identities.",17,False
145356b,"The prominence of increasingly regressive tax structures leads to a discussion of factors subverting progressive revenue mobilization, such as slashes in wealth, top personal and corporate income tax rates, the increased use of regressive indirect taxes, and growing tax abuses, including harmful tax competition, tax avoidance and evasion by high net worth individuals (HNWIs) and transnational corporations (TNCs). The section also highlights redistributive policies that positively contributed to equity and sustainable development, especially in Latin America. Section 4 discusses possible steps for moving towards a framework enabling redistributive policies promoting equity and sustainable development. It also emphasizes the limits of domestic policy initiatives and the need for increased international cooperation, notably regarding the taxation of mobile capital income and financial wealth of HNWIs and TNCs.",17,True
e60fa3b,"In September 2015, President Xi announced additional commitments of USD 2 billion for South-South co-operation and to implement the SDGs (IDS, 2016). Moreover, Chinese investments in Africa are expected to increase: the Johannesburg Action Plan for comprehensive strategic and co-operative partnership with Africa provides for USD 35 billion in concessional loans and credits in 2016-2018, as well as USD 10 billion for the China-Africa Production Capacity Co-operation Fund, it also increases in the existing China-Africa development fund (for equity investment) from USD 5 billion to USD 10 billion. China's main priority sectors are public facilities, industry and economic infrastructure.",17,True
079f2dc,"The following chapter examines policy coherence and the importance of local strategies to job creation. This does not necessarily correspond to the municipal level, where the public employment service has its antennas. Such municipal offices are often merely delivery agencies with low critical mass and strategic capacity, except in urban centres.",17,False
6d0994b,"Also at the same meeting, statements were made by Wu Zhimin (China) and Peter Besseau (Canada) on the country-led initiative hosted by China, and Christian Ktichli (Switzerland) and Anna Sternberg (Switzerland) on the country-led initiative hosted by Switzerland. At its 10th meeting, on 15 May, the Forum considered agenda item 6 jointly with items 3, 4, 5, 7 (Multi-stakeholder dialogue) and 9. For its consideration of the item, the Forum had before it the report of the Secretary-General on enhanced cooperation and policy and programme coordination and regional and subregional inputs (E/CN.",17,False
fb6ebfa,"As a result of the Busan Declaration, the Global Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation (GPDEC) was created in 2012. Several initiatives exist in the framework of the GPDEC that are committed to advance specific commitments for effective development co-operation, including the Partnership on Climate Finance and Development. This voluntary initiative fosters country-level actions by promoting good practice and knowledge sharing on mainstreaming climate finance into development planning and more effective ways to use climate finance.",17,True
5a4af25,"Studies have been carried out in the region that show deficiencies in pension and retirement benefit coverage that have a larger impact on women, who receive roughly 20% less than men, on average (Marco, 2016, CEPAL, 2016a). In recent years, time has become the subject of study as a measure of well-being: the problem of poverty has been analysed from various unconventional perspectives and a vicious circle involving poverty and time spent on unpaid work has been revealed (Vaca-Trigo, 2015, CEPAL, 2016a). Hence, in order to achieve sustainable development, it is important to consider this dimension when designing public policies. As shown in figure IV.11, poor women receiving transfers in both countries spend more hours per week on unpaid domestic and care work.",17,False
4bc05d4,"Such complexity leads to significant difficulties in monitoring and verifying environmental impacts and outcomes. The Busan Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation agreed on four principles to ensure aid effectiveness: ownership by partner countries, results focused efforts, inclusive partnerships, and delivery of aid within an environment of transparency and accountability. Garside et al (2016) translates this into four elements of effective aid-business partnerships for sustainable development, based on a review of 11 existing partnerships: ensuring additionality of private sector efforts (i.e. going beyond what business would have invested in anyway), financial sustainability of approaches, mutual transformation (i.e. changing of attitudes and business models), and risk-sharing, all within a transparent manner without market distortion. These four elements could provide a structure for further assessment and guidance for good practice recommendations for development cooperation efforts in private sector engagement for the environment.",17,True
7300354,"Strategies include building national and regional institutional capacity, cost sharing across borders, governance and regulations, enhancing access to modern energy, developing low-carbon and renewable domestic resources, improving regional energy cooperation and energy security, and promoting private sector participation in energy development. One key focus area is the development of hydropower potential, especially in the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Other activities pertaining to the energy sector include issues related to development of new and renewable sources (including small hydro), addressing the food-energy nexus, standardization and testing. These are captured in the BIMSTEC Memorandum of Understanding on Grid Interconnection.",17,True
3390a18,"This would in part be motivated by the widespread use of such measures for reasons other than food security, including tax collection, environmental and health considerations and industry policy. Other participants connected the issue to the standstill in the agenda for agricultural trade reform. They questioned whether advanced rule-making on export restrictions would be possible given the fragile consensus in this agenda (e.g. on removal of export subsidies and increased transparency regarding domestic support) between the key players.",17,False
7087b25,"It can also support capacity development and provide technical assistance to strengthen local institutions and contribute to domestic resource mobilisation and the engagement of the private sector. The emphasis on different goals will be based on national circumstances. Nevertheless, the SDGs do increase the overall scope of issue development co-operation will play a role in.",17,True
d12be67,"Some concerns were raised that they were a disruptive force with regard to the WTO-led multilateral trading system, compared with the inclusive and consensual nature of the latter regime, these regional negotiations excluded the majority of the world's countries and people yet could affect them in various ways. The Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), adopted at Bali in 2013, is the biggest multilateral trade deal of the past 20 years (discussed later). The WTO-led Aid for Trade (AfT) initiative shows trade multilateralism can be responsive to the concerns of the most capacity-constrained members and can help address their development needs. The TFA's implementation is also directly linked to parties' capacity, with technical assistance available to help in this regard. More importantly, in today's turbulent times, the WTO still provides the best rules-based governance framework for world trade and safeguards the development interests of the world's smallest and poorest countries. Commonwealth members could lead the way by reaffirming their commitment to a free, fair and inclusive multilateral trading system that supports the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.",17,True
ba163a1,"The WTO's specific contributions to the SDGs also include: ensuring access to affordable medicines in developing countries (SDG 3.b): implementing the principle of special and differential treatment to help reduce inequalities (SDG 1Q.a): and ongoing discussions on eliminating subsidies that cause overfishing and overcapacity (in order to help achieve SDG 14.6). In addition, the WTO's work on the reduction of tariff and non-tariff barriers on environmental goods and services can facilitate the diffusion of green technologies and therefore directly contribute to environmental sustainability. In this way, the WTO can ensure that the multilateral trading system contributes to building a more favourable global environment for inclusive growth and development. Over the past twenty years, international trade has undergone major changes due to a variety of economic, political and technological factors. Undoubtedly, one main leading factor of change has been the unprecedented pace of technological innovation, which has transformed traditional ways of conducting trade. Advances in ICTs have led to reduced costs and increased speed and efficiency of economic transactions, with significant productivity gains for the global economy.",17,True
80e2a8e,"By contrast, electrical and HVAC workers will likely need to attend accredited training programmes at community colleges or through their local trade union. For example, to support the transition to green jobs, in 2008 the Mechanical Contractors Association of Chicago established a green construction institute, to providing training to local building contractors, apprentices and journeymen of United Association of Pipe Fitters Local 597 (MCA Chicago, 2011). According to one analysis, 2 200 jobs will be created by full implementation of the retrofit programme called for by the Chicago Climate Action Plan (Schrock, 2009), but given that this is a small fraction of total construction employment in the region, and because there is currently a large volume of skilled trades people currently unemployed (CWIC-CJC, 2010), it is likely that current training programme will suffice.",17,False
da3984f,"Deliveries to millers increased from 1.8 million tonnes in the 2000/01 marketing year to 4.1 million tonnes in 2010/11. Due to the relative simplicity of milling and the scalability of investments, it became an attractive activity for local entrepreneurs. Mills actively procure wheat either directly from farmers or through local traders. Almost half of Kazakhstan’s flour is produced by mills in the northern grain region.",17,False
959b2f9,"Increased mining activity in Chile, Australia and Mexico is primarily driving this trend. But the fact that domestic consumption of metals in OECD countries is growing more slowly than extraction (66% vs. 103%) indicates that a large portion of extraction is being exported outside of the OECD area. In most OECD countries, the economic slowdown caused material extraction and consumption to flatten or decrease (in some cases significantly).",17,False
aeaffdb,"One policy used to address the issue is increasing the de minimis value, which is the value under which shipments qualify for duty-free treatment and simplified customs clearance. While the reduction of the workload for governments is the main argument for increasing de minimis levels, there are challenges that this solution brings such as the increased need to manage illegal traffic. Information-sharing between customs authorities and e-commerce firms for better risk assessment is crucial to reduce the risk that harmful or counterfeit products slip by under a higher de minimis threshold.",17,False
b41454b,"The goal of the programme is to support the development of new innovations with smart, innovation-friendly public procurements. The programme encourages public buyers to use procurement to solve societal problems, renew public services, and improve market access for new products and services. Over the period 2009-16, funding covered a total of EUR 11 million for 73 ended projects. The main areas that received funding are environment/building (36%) and social and health (26%).",17,False
dbdb96f,"For example, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka grant market access preferences under the South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) to four least developed country members (Bangladesh, Bhutan, the Maldives and Nepal) (see annex II for additional examples). For example, in 2001, the European Union (EU) adopted the “Everything But Arms” (EBA) initiative, granting duty-free access to imports of all products from LDCs— except arms and munitions—without any quantitative restrictions. The EBA initiative, however, also includes temporary exceptions on tariff lines of potential importance to LDCs (rice and sugar).",17,True
637457b,"Southern partners can also provide better market access for LDC exports. While China and India already have duty-free schemes in place, they (especially India’s DFQF scheme) could be improved in terms of product coverage and RoO while addressing potential non-tariff barriers to LDC exports. Existing schemes should also consider extending preferential market access to services.",17,True
687478b,"The problem of indebtedness and the instability of fiscal policy in industrialized countries could negatively affect development aid and donor countries’ commitments to contribute 0.7 per cent of their GDP to developing countries (Willem te Velde 2008). As such, countries that depend on international aid face elevated risks of being affected by the global financial and economic crisis. However, World Bank (2008) suggests that international aid would be the least volatile component and debt servicing costs are the main difficulty that developing countries could be confronted with in the case that the global economic crisis induces a contraction in their economy.",17,True
2621018,"Progress towards these Goals is mutually reinforcing, providing opportunities to foster improved employment outcomes for youth while contributing to the achievement of other Goals. The targets emphasize the importance of a solid macroeconomic foundation for economic growth, driven by strategic investments in job-intensive and productive economic activities. In keeping with the integrated nature of the global economy, the targets focus on promoting trade and strengthening the ability of less developed economies to tap into the economic power of the developed world (through financial aid, tourism and foreign direct investment) in terms of job creation.",17,True
f02c6b8,"While common factors help determine labour market participation for both women and men, women often face a far more restrictive range of such factors compared with men. Household and social norms in the subregion assume that women take the vast majority of responsibility for domestic work and caregiving and are sometimes restricted from labour market participation altogether if household income levels are sufficiently high. Labour market segmentation and economic decision-making norms restrict the range of possible jobs in which women can participate. Low incomes and high informality in segmented occupations and economic activity create significant gender gaps in participation in premium-level formal employment.",17,False
ce60986,"The Programme was subject to socio-economic evaluation and strategic environmental assessment. It was approved in December 2007 and ten hydroelectric power plant locations were selected, out of the 25 potential sites initially identified. The ten plants are to be located in the basins of the Rivers Douro, Vouga, Mondego and Tejo.",17,False
1162b2f,"The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 outlines clear targets and priorities for action to prevent new disaster risks and reduce existing ones. In the latest reports (2017-2018) from 70 countries, 67 had strategies that were aligned to some extent with the Sendai Framework. The biggest challenges are investment in disaster risk reduction for resilience and promoting policy coherence between the SDGs and climate change.",17,True
853e3e5,"Nevertheless, as in many other countries, an institutional culture of multiple silo-type ministries still prevails. Ensuring high-profile leadership or co-ordination would help improve policy coherence and enable a whole-of-government approach to sustainable development. For instance, about a quarter of municipal environmental councils were inactive in 2013 (IBGE, 2014). Many state agencies face a significant challenge to attract and retain qualified technical staff.",17,True
cf6a630,"The international community has created processes for monitoring progress at the regional and global levels, and for countries to exchange policy experiences, to learn from each other, and to coordinate their policies where appropriate. The present chapter contributes to this effort by analyzing how the current innovation policies of Kyrgyzstan contribute to the country’s national sustainable development priorities, comparing current policies to international good practice, and recommending policy reforms that could further encourage innovations contributing to sustainable development. The present chapter focuses on the other two pillars of sustainable development, i.e. environmental sustainability and social inclusiveness. However, it should be noted that failures to address unsustainable practices has a very real economic cost. While no estimates of this cost are available for Kyrgyzstan at present, the World Bank has for instance estimated that for neighboring Tajikistan the direct and indirect economic damage caused by environmental degradation may be as high as 8 percent of GDP.90 Thus the key to sustainable development is to achieve all three dimensions together, rather than achieving one at the expense of the others.",17,True
2df910b,"They have also paid special attention to expanding social opportunities by setting policy priorities, nurturing selected industries, fostering state-market complementarities, committing to long-term reforms, having strong political leadership, learning by doing and boosting public investment. Getting policies and policy priorities right raises the equally important issue of getting policymaking right. Governing institutions and policies are profoundly and inextricably linked, one cannot succeed without the other. It is thus important to have policy processes managed by committed people in effective and responsive government structures. Policies also change at different stages of development: at early stages, for example, many countries prioritize job creation and poverty reduction.",17,False
2172f89,"Women are more likely than men to work part-time or have temporary contracts, which is largely explained by their family care responsibilities. While such work arrangements can help balance work and family life in the short and medium-terms, part-time or temporary workers may have fewer career development opportunities, face lower pay rates and higher rates of old-age poverty. These work arrangements are also viewed as less compatible with executive leadership and management positions: less than 1% of women employed part-time are in top management jobs.",17,False
235696a,"Young people and adults are entering, staying, and ending partnerships in ways different from previous generations, and education and services must respond to these changes. Young people need services between their first sexual experiences and when they marry. Services and information should be made available to adults who are separated from their partners or in new partnerships later in life.",17,False
d578a9a,"For example, several countries have adopted legislation that takes into account changes in family structure, recognizing same-sex marriages (e.g., the Netherlands,’36 Spain’37 and Uruguay’3*)’39 and civic unions between same-sex partners (e.g., Argentina,140 Chile’4’ and Sweden142). Thanks to women’s movements,143 many countries have also adopted or improved legislation to prevent and respond to violence against women. Civil Code, article 30, Book I, reform of 2001.",17,False
758c1cc,"Information and transaction costs include obstacles that firms have to overcome in order to search for trading partners, acquiring information about tastes, regulations and technical requirements, and enforcing contracts. World Bank-ESCAP database on International trade costs. Each time series is standardized to 100 at the beginning of the sample period.",17,False
879a374,"Journal of Marriage and the Family, 131-146. Gender & Development, 23(2), 279-297. Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention. The Lancet', 359:1423-29. Relationship between alcohol-attributable disease and socioeconomic status, and the role of alcohol consumption in this relationship: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychology of Violence (in press).",17,False
0e2726a,"Regular household surveys are not yet undertaken in many countries, especially LDCs, and do not always follow the same guidelines for data gathering on ICTs. The rapid pace of change in technology and markets also affects the comparability of data, so that targets and indicators need to be kept under review and updated from time to time to meet changing data availability and policy requirements. More attention also needs to be addressed to building the capacity of national statistical offices and others concerned with data gathering and analysis.",17,True
4aee585,"Between 2013 and 2035, this investment would avert an estimated 147 million child deaths, 32 million stillborn deaths and 5 million maternal deaths. Yet more than 100 developing countries lack the civil registration and vital statistics (CRVS) systems needed to generate accurate birth and death data. That figure includes 39 per cent of children in sub-Saharan Africa and 44 per cent of children in South Asia. In the absence of reliable data, estimates for child mortality in countries lacking CRVS systems are based on a sophisticated statistical model using survey responses, census information and other sources.",17,False
b8d3c4b,"The most recent data compiled by UNICEF (2013) shows that in 82 out of 95 developing countries for which data are available the prevalence of child underweight is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Guha-Khasnobis and James (2010) found a prevalence of adult underweight of around 23 percent in the slum areas of eight Indian cities, while the prevalence in rural areas in the same states was close to 40 percent. It is technically a form of undernutrition (UNSCN, 2010), but is often referred to separately because it can coexist with adequate or excessive consumption of macronutrients and carries health consequences that are distinct from those associated with stunting.",17,False
822b095,"Following their concerns that physicians across the Japanese health system were not able to identify signs of psychological distress which could help reduce suicide, the Japanese Medical Association reports that they began sharing information and guidance on depression with all doctors, first in 2004 and then again in 2009. At present, only indicators on the rate of seclusion and restraint, and involuntary admission, are collected by providers and at a Prefectural level. Systematically collected information on the mental health care system is limited to structural indicators - facilities, staff numbers, bed numbers.",17,False
cd1c862,"Moreover, the indicators should be developed which support the monitoring of the Global Goals for Sustainable Development (SDGs) adopted in 2015 by the UN General Assembly. This will ensure more accurate assessment of sustainable development progress and, if necessary, lead to adjustment of urban development policy. For example, a private construction practice of building several houses on six-acre (rural areas) and four-acre (urban areas) plots exists. It is essential to monitor this process and update development density and infrastructure indicators.",17,True
53e5a59,"It is important that the indicators align to the same framework for a full and comprehensive analysis to be made. All Nordic statistical offices are currently working to establish regular routines to produce and disseminate these statistics. Rather than to dig deep into the intricacies of a green GDP, the thrust of the effort is on developing a Nordic set of already existing indicators and measures, which relate to the SEEA Central Framework. This can be used besides GDP, as a satellite environmental account, that could be combined with traditional SNA national accounts and provide input for thorough, transparent and reliable analysis of the interplay between economy and environment. A common Nordic effort in this field would be a path-breaking contribution to the follow-up of the new UN sustainable development goals.",17,True
46cba23,"Strong real economy investments, large and small, with their important job-creating capacity must displace financial operations from the driver's seat of the global economy. The expansion of short-term profits in financial markets, with little employment to show for it, has channelled away resources from the longer term horizon of sustainable real economy enterprises. The world is awash in liquidity that needs to become productive investments through a regulatory framework ensuring that financial institutions fulfil their original role of channelling savings into the real economy. Also, expanding wage participation in GDP within reasonable inflation rates will increase real demand and serve as a source of sustainable development growth.",17,False
5fe6a3f,"The world’s nations annually contribute over $1 trillion to subsidies for agriculture, energy, water and transport. This is 12 times the amount needed to bring official development assistance up to the 0.7 per cent target set in 1966, it is 15 times the amount that was estimated to be necessary if the Millennium Development Goals were to be fully implemented, and it is even 8 times the massive amount that the architects of the Earth Summit calculated would be needed to implement the ambitious Agenda 21. Subsidies to irrigation, for example, lead to massive wastage of scarce water resources, subsidies to coal production and consumption invalidate efforts to move towards cleaner energy, subsidies to fishing fleets lead to the devastation of fish stocks, and subsidies to transport fuel lead to wasteful use of energy in transport.",17,False
234aad8,"As Minister of Health, she implemented healthcare reform, improving attention to primary care facilities with the aim of ensuring better and faster healthcare response for families. She highlights the contribution that official development assistance (ODA) has made to empowering women and girls to exercise their rights fully as equal citizens. Partnerships on gender equality between the United Nations (UN) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have also played a fundamental role in ensuring enhanced support to and impact on gender equality goals, particularly as the deadline for achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) approaches.",17,True
9ea014b,"However, the lack of clarity about the distinction between climate change and development is one of the factors that has led to distrust between developed and developing countries, fuelled by concerns about additionality and the potential for competition between climate finance and development finance for a limited amount of international public finance. Development finance in the form of Official Development Assistance (ODA) increased steadily from the end of the 1990s up to 2010. In 2015, net official development assistance (ODA) flows from member countries of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD totalled USD 131.6 billion.",17,True
cf3adcf,"Building national capacities and international cooperation in these areas will be important. The world needs a big push—one that is public investment-led, based on international development cooperation, and capable of catalysing private sector investment and innovation so as to sustainably transform the energy system. It is recognized that the fulfilment of official development assistance (ODA) commitments is crucial. Innovative financing mechanisms can also make contributions to developing countries in respect of mobilization of additional resources for financing for development.",17,True
7bc6817,"Accessing international capital markets can also be difficult for many developing countries. These challenges can be further exacerbated for clean energy infrastructure projects, as lenders may be reluctant to lend due to an insufficient knowledge of local markets and a higher technology risk. Ensuring access to affordable finance will require developing country governments, in particular, to combine a short-term strategy of facilitating access to international financing and a longer-term approach. The latter would need to address the full range of risks and limitations that increase the cost of financing for clean energy, including: the shallowness of the domestic financial market, key informational, social or behavioural risks related to clean energy financing, and the limited number of financial products that are available and suited to the sector’s financing needs. In some countries, like Brazil or China, bank lending has played a predominant role, with state-owned and/or national development banks being the main sources of long-term financing. In China for example, banks hold around 80% of the total loan portfolio for infrastructure (Walsh et al.,",17,True
c219a04,"Governments introduced several measures in order to help families, for instance measures of debt relief. As a result, firms started to cut jobs or reduce wages. Moreover, they increasingly used temporary employment contracts without benefits, and more generally entailing a reduction in job security and deterioration in job quality.",17,False
fcd77f5,"In order to encourage corporatisation, the government agreed to assume part of the debts of those hospitals willing to go through that process until the end of 2013. The Ministry of Health gave hospital authorities an opportunity to transform indebted tertiary-care facilities from publicly owned institutions managed by local governments into companies owned by such governments with the further option to also involve a private investor. In the 2009-11 period, this form of transformation of public health-care units was supported by public resources from the general budget.",17,False
6fbe883,"When temperatures drop, and lichen is covered with ice, many reindeer are likely to starve. In addition, the thinning of the Arctic ice has made tracking reindeer herds more dangerous, as the inherited local knowledge regarding safe tracking is then no longer useful. This is clear when considering the case of Nepal, a least developed country, where rising temperatures, erratic rain- and snowfall, and the unpredictability of the beginning of the monsoon season have resulted in slow growth and decreased crop production.",17,False
d3ebd00,"It provides an overview of the financing for development agenda, highlighting the critical role of official development assistance (ODA) for the least developed countries, as well as its catalytic role in higher-income developing countries. The chapter analyses2002-15aggregate aid-for-trade disbursements (around USD 300 billion) and takes a detailed look at aid-for-trade programmes that are building physical and digital connectivity. It offers a brief overview of academic findings on the results of aid-for-trade investments, as well as recent evaluations of donor aid-for-trade strategies and programmes. Case stories show how aid for trade is helping countries improve their physical and digital connectivity, turning trade opportunities into trade flows. Finally, the chapter provides an analysis of aid-for-trade commitments in 2015, closing with a series of conclusions.",17,True
8cdc425,"This source of funding is actually a number of different sources, with funds flowing from various donors through the World Bank and other agents, to countries that take action to reduce emissions from their forestry sectors. The Fund currently has US$10 billion in committed funding available. In an innovative arrangement, financing is available not only to states (and public bodies such as environment or development ministries, development banks), but also to the private sector.13 Also worth noting is the intention to roughly balance investment between mitigation and adaptation, with at least half of the latter funds going to those countries most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change: least developed countries (LDCs), small island states and African states.",17,True
e387a85,"The DAC are also discussing ways to improve knowledge sharing, promote learning, and incentivise innovation in development co-operation policies and practices. While the details of such a marker are not yet defined, the proposal to add a new marker on innovation signals DAC members’ increasing ambition towards greater innovation in how development co-operation is planned and implemented. While there are many technological developments across many fields, most references in STI policy are linked to the digital transformation and the access and use of modern information, communication technologies (ICTs).",17,True
bc281ae,"The practical deployment of new ICTs has become a driving force of customised Internet platforms and applications (Pereira et al., The function of ICT platforms has taken new and varied dimensions as virtual meetings, Internet-based platforms (social media, chat rooms, online fora) and e-voting are used more frequently. Their role is not only to provide the available knowledge to inform stakeholders and debates but also to constitute the common-ground through which these debates are organised, and to integrate other sources of knowledge (e.g. crowdsourcing and knowledge sharing from the community collected through apps and social media).",17,False
05a2ece,"The Paris Agreement continues this bifurcation in some respects by not making reporting on financial, technology transfer and capacity-building support received mandatory (Article 13.10 indicates that developing countries “should” provide this information). However, the Paris Agreement does indicate that developed countries “shall” biennially communicate indicative quantitative and qualitative information on climate finance, technology transfer and capacity building provided to developing country parties, as well as on climate finance mobilised, and that other countries “are encouraged to do so”. This information on support needs is included in various documents that have been prepared inside the UNFCCC framework (e.g. BURs, NCs, NAPAs, TNAs and INDCs) as well as outside (e.g. Strategic Program for Climate Resilience - SPCR, national climate funds).",17,True
8e86801,"This technology bank for the LDCs was officially established on 23 December 2016, through the adoption of the UN General Assembly Resolution A/71/L.52. In addition, ITU's Membership recognized the importance of ICTs for LDCs by adopting specific targets for the LDCs in its Connect 2020 Agenda (ITU, 2014). Target 2, on inclusiveness, includes specific targets on household access to ICTs, Internet use, and affordability in the LDCs. Most have been primarily based on basic, low-bandwidth mobile cellular technologies.",17,True
6b8d03c,"There is also scope to strengthen and leverage South-South cooperation in promoting STI development. In 2016, the United Nations held the first Multi-stakeholder Forum on Science, Technology and Innovation for the Sustainable Development Goals as one element of the Technology Facilitation Mechanism and established the Technology Bank for LDCs. For the Technology Bank, it will be critical to establish the financial base as soon as possible to ensure that all LDCs can benefit from the new institution.",17,True
47c4efa,"Agricultural production expansion in LDCs since the early 1980s has occurred partly as a result of extensive growth, i.e. the expansion of the area used for agricultural production. In LDCs as a group it has grown by 10 per cent, slower than in ODCs, while in developed countries it actually contracted by 11 per cent. The extension of agricultural land use has been strongest in African LDCs and Haiti and in island LDCs.",17,False
5970e9a,"In 2015, the geographic scope was expanded to include small island developing States in the Pacific. It contributes to the narrowing of capacity gaps through regional and South-South cooperation, sharing of resources and the development of an integrated regional warning system comprising a network of collaborative centres. Civil society innovations and business sector initiatives.",17,True
bf69af6,"Some speakers pointed out that the full value of forest-related goods and services to their national economies could be much greater than the monetary figures reported by official statistics. Several speakers stressed that, for effective implementation beyond 2015, it would be essential to continue to facilitate capacity-building, training and technology transfer, through South-South cooperation as well as North-South and triangular cooperation. Speakers also highlighted the importance of working in partnership with members of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests and stakeholders, including the private sector and non-governmental organizations, and the need for adequate resources to strengthen implementation.",17,True
c06247c,"Cash income from women in Gazi Bay only came from this ecotourism initiative in 2011 (UNEP 2011). At Wasini, the boardwalk project generated US$6 500 from entrance fees in 2002, of which US$2 000 was used to set up a craft shop and US$2 800 given to members as dividends (Zeppel 2006). Although total compliance with unregulated mangrove cutting may not have been achieved consistently amongst the stakeholders, community members acknowledged that capacity-building and the associated financial incentive had promoted compliance with the resource use regulations and management within the mangroves (UNEP 2006).",17,False