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@@ -50,16 +68,17 @@بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
@@ -1027,7 +1046,7 @@ أوديفوس الذى وضعه سوفاقلس فى الأفى التى له فى هذه التى إيلياذا هى فيها، فى التشبيه والمحاكاة التى للذين يصنعون الأفى. والعلامة هى هذه: وهى أن الواحدة من صنعة أفى أنها كانت قد تحدث مديحات كثيرة... -THIS is a river of India, which falls with an extraordinary swift stream into the Saronitic Syrtis. Chrysippe, - by the impulse of Venus, whom she had offended, fell in - love with her father Hydaspes, and not being able to curb - her preternatural desires, by the help of her nurse, in the - dead of the night got to his bed and received his caresses; - after which, the king proving unfortunate in his affairs, he - buried alive the old bawd that had betrayed him, and crucified his daughter. Nevertheless such was the excess of - his grief for the loss of Chrysippe, that he threw himself - into the river Indus, which was afterwards called by his - name Hydaspes.
-Moreover in this river there grows a stone, which is - called lychnis, which resembles the color of oil, and is - very bright in appearance. And when they are searching - after it, which they do when the moon increases, the pipers - play all the while. Nor is it to be worn by any but the - richer sort. Also near that part of the river which is called - Pylae, there grows an herb which is very like a heliotrope, - with the juice of which the people anoint their skins to - prevent sunburning, and to secure them against the scorching of the excessive heat.
-The natives whenever they take their virgins tardy, nail - them to a wooden cross, and fling them into this river, - singing at the same time in their own language a hymn - to Venus. Every year also they bury a condemned old - woman near the top of the hill called Therogonos; at - which time an infinite multitude of creeping creatures - come down from the top of the hill, and devour the - insects that hover about the buried carcass. This Chrysermus relates in his History of India, though Archelaus - gives a more exact account of these things in his Treatise - of Rivers.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Elephas, so called
- upon this occasion. When Alexander the Macedonian
- advanced with his army into India, and the natives were
- resolved to withstand him with all their force, the elephant
- upon which Porus, king of that region, was wont to ride,
- being of a sudden stung with a gad-bee, ran up to the top
- of the mountain of the sun, and there uttered these words
- distinctly in human speech: O king, my lord, descended
- from the race of Gegasius, forbear to attempt any thing
- against Alexander, for he is descended from Jupiter.
And
- having so said, he presently died. Which when Porus
- understood, afraid of Alexander, he fell at his feet and
- sued for peace. Which when he had obtained, he called
- the mountain Elephas;—as Dercyllus testifies in his Third
- Book of Mountains.
-
-
ISMENUS is a river of Boeotia, that washes the walls of
- Thebes. It was formerly called the foot of Cadmus, upon
- this occasion. When Cadmus had slain the dragon which
- kept the fountain of Mars, he was afraid to taste of the
- water, believing it was poisoned; which forced him to
- wander about in search of another fountain to allay his
-
-
Some time after, Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, - being wounded by Apollo and in great pain, threw himself into the said river, which was then from his name - called Ismenus;—as Sostratus relates in his Second Book - of Rivers.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Cithaeron, formerly
- called Asterion for this reason. Boeotus the son of Neptune was desirous, of two noble ladies, to marry her that
- should be most beneficial to him; and while he tarried for
- both in the night-time upon the top of a certain nameless mountain, of a sudden a star fell from heaven upon
- the shoulders of Eurythemiste, and immediately vanished.
- Upon which Boeotus, understanding the meaning of the
- prodigy, married the virgin, and called the mountain Asterion from the accident that befell him. Afterwards it was
- called Cithaeron upon this occasion. Tisiphone, one of
- the Furies, falling in love with a most beautiful youth
- whose name was Cithaeron, and not being able to curb the
- impatience of her desires, declared her affection to him in
- a letter, to which he would not return any answer. Whereupon the Fury, missing her design, pulled one of the serpents from her locks, and flung it upon the young lad as he
- was keeping his sheep on the top of the mountain Asterion; where the serpent twining about his neck choked
- him to death. And thereupon by the will of the Gods
- the mountain was called Cithaeron;—as Leo of Byzantium writes in his History of Boeotia.
- But Hermesianax of Cyprus tells the story quite otherwise. For he says, that Helicon and Cithaeron were two
-
-
HEBRUS is a river of Thrace, deriving its former name - of Rhombus from the many gulfs and whirlpools in the - water.
-Cassander, king of that region, having married Crotonice, had by her a son whom he named Hebrus. But then - being divorced from his first wife, he married Damasippe, - the daughter of Atrax, and brought her home over his - son's head; with whom the mother-in-law falling in love, - invited him by letters to her embraces. But he, avoiding - his mother-in-law as a Fury, gave himself over to the sport - of hunting. On the other side the impious woman, missing - her purpose, belied the chaste youth, and accused him of - attempting to ravish her. Upon this Cassander, raging - with jealousy, flew to the wood in a wild fury, and with - his sword drawn pursued his son, as one that treacherously - sought to defile his father's bed. Upon which the son, - finding he could no way escape his father's wrath, threw - himself into the river Rhombus, which was afterwards - called Hebrus from the name of the young man;—as - Timotheus testifies in his Eleventh Book of Rivers.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Pangaeus, so called
- upon this occasion. Pangaeus, the son of Mars and Critobule,
-
-
In the river before mentioned, grows an herb not much - unlike to origanumn; the tops of which the Thracians cropping off burn upon a fire, and after they are filled with the - fruits of Ceres, they hold their heads over the smoke, and - snuff it up into their nostrils, letting it go down their - throats, till at last they fall into a profound sleep.
-Also upon the mountain Pangaeus grows an herb, which
- is called the harp upon this occasion. The women that
- tore Orpheus in pieces cast his limbs into the river Hebrus;
- and his head being changed, the whole body was turned
- into the shape of a dragon. But as for his harp, such was
- the will of Apollo, it remained in the same form. And
- from the streaming blood grew up the herb which was
- called the harp; which, during the solemnity of the sacrifices to Bacchus, sends forth a sound like that of an harp
- when played upon. At which time the natives, being
- covered with the skins of young hinds and waving their
- thyrsuses in their hands, sing a hymn, of which these are
- part of the words,
-
-
-
-
as Clitonymus reports, in his Third Book of Thracian - Relations. - -
-GANGES is a river in India, so called for this reason. A
- certain Calaurian nymph had by Indus a son called Ganges,
- conspicuous for his beauty. Who growing up to manhood,
-
-
In this river grows an herb resembling bugloss, which - the natives bruise, and keep the juice very charily. With - this juice in the dead of the night they go and besprinkle - the tigers' dens; the virtue of which is such, that the - tigers, not being able to stir forth by reason of the strong - scent of the juice, are starved to death;—as Callisthenes - reports in his Third Book of Hunting.
-Upon the banks of this river lies the mountain called - the Anatole for this reason. The Sun, beholding the - nymph Anaxibia innocently spending her time in dancing, - fell passionately in love with her, and not able to curb his - loose amours, pursued her with a purpose to ravish her. - She therefore, finding no other way to escape him, fled to - the temple of Orthian Diana, which was seated upon the - mountain called Coryphe, and there immediately vanished - away. Upon which the Sun, that followed her close at - the heels, not knowing what was become of his beloved, - overwhelmed with grief, rose in that very place. And - from this accident it was that the natives called the top of - that mountain Anatole, or the rising of the Sun;—as Caemaron reports in his Tenth Book of the Affairs of India. - -
-PHASIS is a river of Scythia, running by a city of the - same name. It was formerly called Arcturus, deriving its - name from the situation of the cold regions through which - it runs. But the name of it was altered upon this occasion.
-Phasis, the child of the Sun and Ocyrrhoe daughter of - Oceanus, slew his mother, whom he took in the very act - of adultery. For which being tormented by the Furies appearing to him, he threw himself into the river Arcturus, - which was afterwards called by his own name Phasis.
-In this river grows a reed, which is called leucophyllus, - or the reed with the white leaf. This reed is found at - the dawning of the morning light, at what time the sacrifices are offered to Hecate, at the time when the divinely - inspired paean is chanted, at the beginning of the spring; - when they who are troubled with jealous heads gather this - reed, and strew it in their wives' chambers to keep them - chaste. And the nature of the reed is such, that if any - wild extravagant person happens to come rashly in drink - into the room where it lies, he presently becomes deprived - of his rational thoughts, and immediately confesses whatever he has wickedly done and intended to do. At what - time they that are present to hear him lay hold of him, - sew him up in a sack, and throw him into a hole called the - Mouth of the Wicked, which is round like the mouth of a - well. This after thirty days empties the body into the - Lake Maeotis, that is full of worms; where of a sudden - the body is seized and torn to pieces by several vultures - unseen before, nor is it known from whence they come;— - as Ctesippus relates in his Second Book of Scythian Relations.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Caucasus, which was
- before called Boreas's Bed, upon this occasion. Boreas in
- the heat of his amorous passion ravished away by force
- Chione, the daughter of Arcturus, and carried her to a
- certain hill which was called Niphantes, and upon her
- begot a son whom he called Hyrpax, who succeeded Heniochus in his kingdom. For which reason the mountain
- was first called Boreas's Bed; but afterwards Caucasus
- upon this occasion. After the fight of the Giants, Saturn,
-
-
Upon this mountain grows an herb which is called Prometheus, which Medea gathering and bruising made use - of to protect Jason against her father's obstinacy. - -
-ARAR is a river in Gallia Celtica, deriving the name from - its being mixed with the river Rhone. For it falls into the - Rhone within the country of the Allobroges. It was - formerly called Brigulus, but afterwards changed its name - upon this occasion. Arar, as he was a hunting, entering - into the wood, and there finding his brother Celtiber torn - in pieces by the wild beasts, mortally wounded himself for - grief, and fell into the river Brigulus; which from that - accident was afterwards called by his own name Arar.
-In this river there breeds a certain large fish, which by
- the natives is called Clupaea. This fish during the increase
- of the moon is white; but all the while the moon is in the
- wane, it is altogether black; and when it grows over
- bulky, it is (as it were) stabbed by its own fins. In the
- head of it is found a stone like a corn of salt, which, being
-
-
Near to this river stands a mountain called Lugdunum,
- which changed its name upon this occasion. When Momorus and Atepomarus were dethroned by Seseroneus, in
- pursuance of the oracle's command they designed to build
- a city upon the top of the hill. But when they had laid
- the foundations, great numbers of crows with their wings
- expanded covered all the neighboring trees. Upon which
- Momorus, being a person well skilled in augury, called the
- city Lugdunum. For lugdon in their language signifies a
- crow, and dunum
- down.
-
PACTOLUS is a river of Lydia, that washes the walls of - Sardis, formerly called Chrysorrhoas. For Chrysorrhoas, - the son of Apollo and Agathippe, being a mechanic artist, - and one that only lived from hand to mouth upon his - trade, one time in the middle of the night made bold to - break open the treasury of Croesus; and conveying thence - a good quantity of gold, he made a distribution of it to his - family. But being pursued by the king's officers, when he - saw he must be taken, he threw himself into the river - which was afterwards from his name called Chrysorrhoas, - and afterwards changed into that of Pactolus upon this - occasion.
-Pactolus, the son of. . . and Leucothea, during the
- performance of the mysteries sacred to Venus, ravished
- Demodice his own sister, not knowing who she was; for
-
-
Also in this river is to be found a stone which is called - the preserver of the fields, resembling the color of silver, - very hard to be found, in regard of its being mixed with - the gold sand. The virtue of which is such, that the more - wealthy Lydians buy it and lay it at the doors of their - treasuries, by which means they preserve their treasure, - whatever it be, safe from the seizure of pilfering hands. - For upon the approach of thieves or robbers, the stone - sends forth a sound like that of a trumpet. Upon which - the thieves surprised, and believing themselves apprehended by officers, throw themselves headlong and break - their necks; insomuch that the place where the thieves - thus frighted come by their violent deaths is called Pactolus's prison.
-In this river also there grows an herb that bears a purple flower, and is called chrysopolis; by which the inhabitants of the neighboring cities try their purest gold. For - just before they put their gold into the melting-pot, they - touch it with this herb; at what time, if it be pure and - unmixed, the leaves of the herb will be tinctured with the - gold and preserve the substance of the matter; but if it - be adulterated, they will not admit the discoloring moisture;—as Chrysermus relates in his Third Book of - Rivers.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Tmolus, full of all - manner of wild beasts, formerly called Carmanorion, from - Carmanor the son of Bacchus and Alexirrhoea, who was - killed by a wild boar as he was hunting; but afterward - Tmolus upon this occasion.
-Tmolus, the son of Mars and Theogone, king of Lydia,
-
-
Upon this mountain grows a stone not unlike a pumice-stone, which is very rare to be found. This stone changes - its color four times a day; and is to be seen only by- virgins that are not arrived at the years of understanding. - But if marriageable virgins happen to see it, they can - never receive any injury from those that attempt their - chastity;—as Clitophon reports. - -
-LYCORMAS is a river of Aetolia, formerly called Evenus - for this reason. Idas the son of Aphareus, after he had - ravished away by violence Marpessa, with whom he was - passionately in love, carried her away to Pleuron, a city of - Aetolia. This rape of his daughter Evenus could by no - means endure, and therefore pursued after the treacherous - ravisher, till he came to the river Lycormas. But then - despairing to overtake the fugitive, he threw himself for - madness into the river, which from his own name was - called Evenus.
-In this river grows an herb which is called sarissa, because it resembles a spear, of excellent use for those that - are troubled with dim sight;—as Archelaus relates in his - First Book of Rivers.
-Near to this river lies Myenus, from Myenus the son of - Telestor and Alphesiboea; who, being beloved by his - mother-in-law and unwilling to defile his father's bed, retired himself to the mountain Alphius. But Telestor, - being made jealous of his wife, pursued his son into the - wilderness; and followed him so close, that Myenus, not - being able to escape, flung himself headlong from the top - of the mountain, which for that reason was afterwards - called Myenus.
-Upon this mountain grows a flower called the white violet, which, if you do but name the word step-dame, presently - dies away;—as Dercyllus reports in his Third Book of - Mountains. - -
-MAEANDER is a river of Asia, formerly called the Returner. For of all rivers in the world it is the only stream - which, taking its rise from its own fountain, seems to run - back to its own head.
-It is called Maeander from Maeander, the son of Cercaphus and Anaxibia, who, waging war with the Pessinuntines, made a vow to the Mother of the Gods, that if he
- obtained the victory, he would sacrifice the first that came
- to congratulate him for his good success. Now it happened that the first that met him were his son Archelaus,
- his mother, and his sister. All which, though so nearly
- related to him, he offered in sacrifice to the satisfaction of
- his vow. But then no less grieved for what he had done,
- he cast himself into the river, which from this accident
- was afterwards called by his own name Maeander;—as
- Timolaus tells us in his First Book of Phrygian Relations.
-
-
But Demostratus of Apamea relates the story thus: - Maeander being a second time elected general against the - Pessinuntines, and obtaining the victory quite contrary to - his expectation, gave to his soldiers the offerings due to - the Mother of the Gods. At which the Goddess being - offended, she deprived him of his reason to that degree, - that in the height of his madness he slew both his wife - and his son. But coming somewhat to himself and repenting of what he had done, he threw himself into the - river, which by his name was called Maeander.
-In this river there is a certain stone, which by Antiphrasis is called sophron, or the sober-stone; which if you - drop into the bosom of any man, it presently makes him - mad to that degree as to murder his nearest relations, but - having once atoned the Mother of the Gods, he is presently restored to his wits;—as Damaratus testifies in his - Third Book of Rivers. And Archelaus makes mention of - the same in his First Book of Stones.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Sipylus, so called - from Sipylus the son of Agenor and Dioxippe. For he - having killed his mother by mistake, and being haunted - by the Furies, retired to the Ceraunian mountain, and - there hanged himself for grief. After which, by the - providence of the Gods, the mountain was called Sipylus.
-In this mountain grows a stone that resembles a cylinder, which when children that are obedient to their
- parents find, they lay it up in the temple of the Mother
- of the Gods. Nor do they ever transgress out of impiety;
- but reverence their parents, and are obedient to their
- superior relations;—as Agatharchides the Samian relates
- in his Fourth Book of Stones, and Demaratus in his
- Fourth Book of Phrygia.
-
-
MARSYAS is a river of Phrygia, flowing by the city - Celaenae, and formerly called the fountain of Midas for - this reason. Midas, king of Phrygia, travelling in the - remoter parts of the country, and wanting water, stamped - upon the ground; and there presently appeared a golden - fountain. But the water proving gold, and both he and - his soldiers being ready to perish for thirst, he invoked the - compassion of Bacchus, who listening to his prayers supplied him with water. The Phrygians having by this - means quenched their thirst, Midas named the river that - issued from the spring the Fountain of Midas. Afterwards - it was called Marsyas, upon this occasion.
-Marsyas being overcome and flayed by Apollo, certain - Satyrs are said to have sprung from the stream of his - blood; as also a river bearing the name of Marsyas;—as - Alexander Cornelius recites in his Third Book of Phrygian - Relations.
-But Euemeridas the Cnidian tells the story after this - manner. It happened that the wine-bag which was made - of Marsyas's skin, being corroded by time and carried - away negligently by the wind, fell at last from the land - into Midas's well; and driving along with the stream, was - taken up by a fisherman. At what time Pisistratus the - Lacedaemonian, being commanded by the oracle to build - near the place where the relics of the Satyr were found, - reflected upon the accident, and in obedience to the oracle - having built a fair city, called it Noricum, which in the - Phrygian language signifies a wine-bag.
-In this river grows an herb called the pipe, which being - moved in the wind yields a melodious sound;—as Dercyllus reports in his First Book of Satyrics.
-Near to this river also lies the mountain Berecyntus,
- deriving its name from Berecyntus, the first priest to the
-
-
STRYMON is a river of Thrace, that flows along by the - city Edonis. It was formerly called Palaestinus, from - Palaestinus the son of Neptune. For he being at war - with his neighbors, and seized with a violent sickness, - sent his son Haliacmon to be general of his army; who, - rashly giving battle to his enemies, was slain in the fight. - The tidings of which misfortune being brought to Palaestinus, he privately withdrew himself from his guards, and - in the desperation of his grief flung himself into the - River Conozus, which from that accident was afterwards - called Palaestinus. But as for Strymon, he was the son of - Mars and Helice; and hearing that his son Rhesus was - slain, he flung himself into the river Palaestinus, which - was after that called Strymon, by his own name.
-In this river grows a stone which is called pausilypus, - or the grief-easing stone. This stone if any one find who - is oppressed with grief, he shall presently be eased of his - sorrow;—as Jason of Byzantium relates in his Thracian - Histories.
-Near to this river lie the mountains Rhodope and Haemus. These being brother and sister, and both falling in - love with each other, the one was so presumptuous as to - call his sister his Juno, the other to call her brother her - Jupiter; which so offended the Deities, that they changed - them into mountains bearing their own names.
-In these two mountains grow certain stones, which are
-
-
SAGARIS is a river of Phrygia, formerly called Xerobates - because in the summer time it was generally dry. But it - was called Sagaris for this reason: Sagaris, the son of - Myndon and Alexirrhoe, contemning and slighting the - mysteries of the Mother of the Gods, frequently affronted and - derided her priests the Galli. At which the Goddess heinously offended, struck him with madness to that degree, - that in one of his raging fits he flung himself into the - river Xerobates, which from that time forward was called - Sagaris.
-In this river grows a stone, which is called autoglyphus, - that is, naturally engraved; for it is found with the Mother - of the Gods by nature engraved upon it. This stone, - which is rarely to be found, if any of the Galli or gelded - priests happen to light upon, he makes no wonder at it, - but undauntedly brooks the sight of a preternatural action;—as Aretazes reports in his Phrygian Relations.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Ballenaeus, which
- in the Phrygian language signifies royal; so called from
- Ballenaeus, the son of Ganymede and Medesigiste, who
- perceiving his father almost wasted with a consumption,
- instituted the Ballenaean festival, observed among the natives to this day.
In this river is to be found a stone called aster, which
- from the latter end of autumn shines at midnight like fire.
-
- ballen, which
- being interpreted signifies a king;—as Hermesianax the
- Cyprian affirms in his Second Book of his Phrygian Relations.
-
-
SCAMANDER is a river of Troas, which was formerly called - Xanthus, but changed its name upon this occasion. Scamander, the son of Corybas and Demodice, having suddenly beheld the ceremonies while the mysteries of Rhea were - solemnizing, immediately ran mad, and being hurried away - by his own fury to the River Xanthus, flung himself into - the stream, which from thence was called Scamander.
-In this river grows an herb like a vetch, that bears a
- cod with berries rattling in it when they are ripe; whence
- it derived the name of sistrum, or the rattle; whoever
- has this herb in possession fears no apparition nor the
- sight of any God;—as Demostratus writes in his. Second
- Book of Rivers.
Near to this river lies the mountain Ida, formerly Gargarus; on the top of which stand the altars of Jupiter - and of the Mother of the Gods. But it was called Ida - upon this occasion. Aegesthius, who descended from Jupiter, falling passionately in love with the nymph Ida, obtained her good-will, and begat the Idaean Dactyli, or - priests of the Mother of the Gods. After which, Ida - running mad in the temple of Rhea, Aegesthius, in remembrance of the love which he bare her, called the mountain by her name.
-In this mountain grows a stone called cryphius, as being never to be found but when the mysteries of the Gods
- are solemnizing;—as Heraclitus the Sicyonian writes in
- his Second Book of Stones.
-
-
TANAIS is a river of Scythia, formerly called the Amazonian river, because the Amazons bathed themselves - therein; but it altered its name upon this occasion. Tanais, the son of Berossus and Lysippe, one of the Amazons, became a vehement hater of the female sex, and - looking upon marriage as ignominious and dishonorable, - applied himself wholly to martial affairs. This so offended - Venus, that she caused him to fall passionately in love - with his own mother. True it is, at first he withstood the - force of his passion; but finding he could not vanquish the - fatal necessity of yielding to divine impulse, and yet desirous to preserve his respect and piety towards his mother, - he flung himself into the Amazonian river, which was afterwards called Tanais, from the name of the young man.
-In this river grows a plant which is called halinda, resembling a colewort; which the inhabitants bruising, and - anointing their bodies with the juice of it, find themselves - in a condition better able to endure the extremity of the - cold; and for that reason, in their own language they call - it Berossus's oil.
-In this river grows a stone not unlike to crystal, resembling the shape of a man with a crown upon his head. - Whoever finds the stone when the king dies, and has it - ready against the time that the people meet upon the - banks of the river to choose a new sovereign, is presently - elected king, and receives the sceptre of the deceased - prince;—as Ctesiphon relates in his Third Book of - Plants; and Aristobulus gives us the same account in his - First Book of Stones.
-Near to this river also lies a mountain, in the language
- of the natives called Brixaba, which signifies the forehead
- of a ram. And it was so called upon this occasion.
- Phryxus having lost his sister Helle near the Euxine Sea,
-
-
In this mountain grows an herb, by the barbarians called
- phryxa (which being interpreted signifies hating the
- wicked), not unlike our common rue. If the son of a former mother have it in his possession, he can never be injured by his step-dame. It chiefly grows near the place
- which is called Boreas's Den, and being gathered, is colder
- than snow. But if any step-dame be forming a design
- against her son-in-law, it sets itself on fire and sends forth
- a bright flame. By which means they who are thus warned
- avoid the danger they are in;—as Agatho the Samian
- testifies in his Second Book of Scythian Relations.
-
-
THERMODON is a river of Scythia, deriving its name from - this accident. It was formerly called Crystallus, as being - often frozen in the summer, the situation of the place producing this effect. But that name was altered upon this - occasion. . . . - -
-THE Nile is a river in Egypt, that runs by the city of
- Alexandria. It was formerly called Melas, from Melas the
- son of Neptune; but afterwards it was called Aegyptus
- upon this occasion. Aegyptus, the son of Vulcan and
-
-
Garmathone, queen of Egypt, having lost her son Chrysochoas while he was yet very young, with all her servants - and friends most bitterly bemoaned her loss. At what - time Isis appearing to her, she surceased her sorrow for a - while, and putting on the countenance of a feigned gratitude, kindly entertained the goddess. She, willing to make - a suitable return to the queen for the piety which she - expressed in her reception, persuaded Osiris to bring back - her son from the subterranean regions. When Osiris undertook to do this, at the importunity of his wife, Cerberus - —whom some call the Terrible—barked so loud, that - Nilus, Garmathone's husband, struck with a sudden frenzy, - threw himself into the river Aegyptus, which from thence - was afterwards called Nilus.
-In this river grows a stone, not unlike to a bean, which - so soon as any dog happens to see, he ceases to bark. It - also expels the evil spirit out of those that are possessed, - if held to the nostrils of the party afflicted.
-There are other stones which are found in this river,
- called kollotes, which the swallows picking up against the
- time that Nilus overflows, build up the wall which is called
- the Chelidonian wall, which restrains the inundation of
-
-
Upon this river lies the mountain Argyllus, so called for - this reason.
-Jupiter in the heat of his amorous desires ravished away - the Nymph Arge from Lyctus, a city of Crete, and then - carried her to a mountain of Egypt called Argillus, and - there begat a son, whom he named Dionysus (or Bacchus); - who, growing up to years of manhood, in honor of his - mother called the hill Argillus; and then mustering together an army of Pans and Satyrs, first conquered the - Indian's, and then subduing Spain, left Pan behind him - there, the chief commander and governor of those places. - Pan by his own name called that country Pania, which was - afterward by his posterity called Spania;—as Sosthenes - relates in the Thirteenth Book of Iberian Relations. - -
-HIMERUS, the son of the Nymph Taygete and Lacedaemon, through the anger of offended Venus, at a revelling - that lasted all night, deflowered his sister Cleodice, not - knowing what he did. But the next day being informed - of the truth of the matter, he laid it so to heart, that - through excess of grief he flung himself into the river - Marathon, which from thence was called Himeros; but - after that Eurotas, upon this occasion.
-The Lacedaemonians being at war with the Athenians, - and staying for the full moon, Eurotas their captain-general, despising all religion, would needs fight his enemies,. - though at the same time he was warned by thunder and' - lightning. However, having lost his army, the ignominy - of his loss so incessantly perplexed him, that he flung himself into the river Himerus, which from that accident was - afterwards called Eurotas.
-In this river grows a stone which is shaped like a helmet, called thrasydeilos, or rash and timorous. For if it
- hears a trumpet sound, it leaps toward the bank of the
- river; but if you do but name the Athenians, it presently
- sinks to the bottom of the water. Of these stones there
- are not a few which are consecrated and laid up in the
- temple of Minerva of the Brazen House;—as Nicanor
- the Samian relates in his Second Book of Rivers.
Near to this river lies the mountain Taygetus, deriving - its name from the nymph Taygete; who, after Jupiter had - deflowered her, being overcome by grief, ended her days - by hanging at the summit of the mountain Amyclaeus, - which from thence was called Taygetus.
-Upon this mountain grows a plant called Charisia, which - the women at the beginning of the spring tied about their - necks, to make themselves more passionately beloved by - men;—as Cleanthes reports in his First Book of Mountains. But Sosthenes the Cnidian is more accurate in the - relation of these things, from whom Hermogenes borrowed - the subject of his writing. - -
-INACHUS is a river in the territories of Argos, formerly - called Carmanor. Afterwards Haliacmon, for this reason.
-Haliacmon, a Tirynthian by birth, while he kept sheep - upon the mountain Coccygium, happened against his will - to see Jupiter and Rhea sporting together; for which - being struck mad, and hurried by the violence of the frenzy, he flung himself into the river Carmanor, which after - that was called Haliacmon. Afterwards it was called Inachus upon this occasion.
-Inachus, the son of Oceanus, after that Jupiter had deflowered his daughter Io, pursued the Deity close at the
- heels, abusing and cursing him all the way as he went.
-
-
In this river grows an herb called cynura, not unlike - our common rue, which the women that desire to miscarry without any danger lay upon their navels, being first - steeped in wine.
-There is also found in this river a certain stone, not - unlike a beryl, which in the hands of those who intend to - bear false witness will grow black. Of these stones there - are many laid up in the temple of Juno Prosymnaea;—as - Timotheus relates in his Argolica, and Agatho the Samian - in his Second Book of Rivers.
-Agathocles the Milesian, in his History of Rivers, also - adds, that Inachus for his impiety was thunderstruck by - Jupiter, and so the river dried up.
-Near to this river lie the mountains Mycenae, Apesantus, Coccygium, and Athenaeum; so called for these - reasons. Apesantus was first called Selenaeus. For Juno, - resolving to be revenged upon Hercules, called the moon - (Selene) to her assistance, who by the help of her magical - charms filled a large chest full of foam and froth, out of - which sprang an immense lion; which Iris binding with - her own girdle carried to the mountain Opheltium, where - the lion killed and tore in pieces Apesantus, one of the - shepherds belonging to that place. And from that accident, by the will of the Gods, the hill was called Apesantus;—as Demodocus writes in his First Book of the History of Hercules.
-In this river grows an herb called selene, with the froth - of which, being gathered in the spring, the shepherds - anoint their feet, and keep them from being bit or stung - by any creeping vermin.
-Mycenae was formerly called Argion, from the many-eyed
-
-
In this mountain there is found a stone, which is called - corybas, of a crow-color, which he that finds and wears - about him shall never be afraid of any monstrous apparitions. As for the mountain Apesantus, this may be added, - that Apesantus, the son of Acrisius, as he was a hunting - in that place, chanced to tread upon a venomous serpent, - which occasioned his death. Whom when his father had - buried, in memory of his son he named the hill Apesantus, - which before was called Selinuntius.
-The mountain Coccygium derived its name from this - accident. Jupiter falling desperately in love with his sister Juno, and having vanquished her by his importunity, - begat a male child. From whence the mountain, before - called Lyrceum, was named Coccygium;—as Agathonymus - relates in his Persis.
-In this mountain grows a tree, which is called paliurus; - upon the boughs of which whatever fowl happens to perch, - it is presently entangled as it were with bird-lime, and cannot stir; only the cuckoo it lets go free, without any harm; - —as Ctesiphon testifies in his First Book of Trees.
-As for the mountain Athenaeum, it derives its name - from Minerva. For after the destruction of Troy, Diomede returning to Argos, ascended the mountain Ceraunius, - and there erecting a temple to Minerva, called the mountain Athenaeum from her name Athena.
-Upon the top of this mountain grows a root like to that - of rue, which if any woman unwarily taste of, she presently - runs mad. This root is called Adrastea;—as Plesimachus - writes in his Second Book of the Returns of the Heroes. - -
-APHEUS is a river of Arcadia, running by the walls of - Pisa, a city of Olympia. It was formerly called Stymphelus, - from Stymphelus the son of Mars and Dormothea; who, - having lost his brother Alcmaeon, threw himself for grief - into the river Nyctimus, for that reason called Stymphelus. - Afterwards it was called Alpheus upon this occasion.
-Alpheus, one of those that derive their descent from the - Sun, contending with his brother Cercaphus about the - kingdom, slew him. For which being chased away and - pursued by the Furies, he flung himself into the river - Nyctimus, which after that was called Alpheus.
-In this river grows a plant which is called cenchritis, - resembling a honey-comb, the decoction of which, being - given by the physicians to those that are mad, cures them - of their frenzy;–as Ctesias relates in his First Book of - Rivers.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Cronium, so called
- upon this occasion. After the Giants' war, Saturn, to avoid
-
-
In this mountain is found a stone, which is called the - cylinder, upon this occasion. For as oft as Jupiter either - thunders or lightens, so often this stone through fear rolls - down from the top of the mountain;—as Dercyllus writes - in his First Book of Stones. - -
-EUPHRATES is a river of Parthia, washing the walls of - Babylon, formerly called Medus from Medus the son of - Artaxeres. He, in the heat of his lust, having ravished - away and deflowered Roxane, and finding he was sought - after by the king, in order to be brought to punishment, - threw himself into the river Xaranda, which from thenceforward was called by his name Medus. Afterwards it - was called Euphrates upon this occasion.
-Euphrates the son of Arandacus, finding his son Axurta - abed with his mother, and thinking him to be some one of - the citizens, provoked by his jealousy, drew his sword and - nailed him to the bed. But perceiving himself the author - of what could not be recalled, he flung himself for grief - into the river Medus, which from that time forward was - called by his name Euphrates.
-In this river grows a stone called aetites, which midwives applying to the navels of women that are in hard - labor, it causes them to bring forth with little pain.
-In the same river also there grows an herb which is - called axalla, which signifies heat. This herb they that - are troubled with quartan-agues apply to their breasts, - and are presently delivered from the fit;—as Chrysermus - writes in his Thirteenth Book of Rivers.
-Near this river lies the mountain Drimylus, where grows - a stone not unlike a sardonyx, worn by kings and princes - upon their diadems, and greatly available against dimness - of sight;–as Nicias Mallotes writes in his Book of - Stones. - -
-CAICUS is a river of Mysia, formerly called Astraeus, - from Astraeus the son of Neptune. For he, in the height - of Minerva's nocturnal solemnities having deflowered his - sister by a mistake, took a ring at the same time from her - finger; by which when he understood the next day the - error which he had committed, for grief he threw himself - headlong into the river Adurus, which from thence was - called Astraeus. Afterwards it came to be called Caicus - upon this occasion.
-Caicus, the son of Hermes and Ocyrrhoe the Nymph, - having slain Timander one of the noblemen of the country, - and fearing the revenge of his relations, flung himself into - the river Astraeus, which from that accident was called - Caicus.
-In this river grows a sort of poppy, which instead of - fruit bears stones. Of these there are some which are - black and shaped like harps, which the Mysians throw - upon their ploughed lands; and if the stones lie still in - the place where they are thrown, it is a sign of a barren - year; but if they fly away like so many locusts, they prognosticate a plentiful harvest.
-In the same river also grows an herb which is called - elipharmacus, which the physicians apply to such as are - troubled with immoderate fluxes of blood, as having a - peculiar virtue to stop the orifices of the veins;—according to the relation of Timagoras in his First Book of - Rivers.
-Adjoining to the banks of this river lies the mountain
-
- spare.
Thus Teuthras, being restored to his former
- health, called the mountain by his own name Teuthras.
In this mountain grows a stone called antipathes (or the - resister), which is of excellent virtue to cure scabs and - leprosies, being powdered and mixed with wine;—as - Ctesias the Cnidian tells us in his Second Book of Mountains. - -
-ACHELOUS is a river of Aetolia, formerly called Thestius.
- This Thestius was the son of Mars and Pisidice, who upon
- some domestic discontent travelled as far as Sicyon, where
-
-
Achelous, the son of Oceanus and the Nymph Nais, - having deflowered his daughter Cletoria by mistake, flung - himself for grief into the river Thestius, which then by - his own name was called Achelous.
-In this river grows an herb, which they call zaclon, very - much resembling wool; this if you bruise and cast into - wine, it becomes water, and preserves the smell but not - the virtues of the wine.
-In the same river also is found a certain stone of a - mixed black and lead color, called linurgus from the - effect; for if you throw it upon a linen cloth, by a certain - affectionate union it assumes the form of the linen, and - turns white;—as Antisthenes relates in the Third Book - of his Meleagris, though Diocles the Rhodian more accurately tells us the same thing in his Aetolics.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Calydon, so called - from Calydon, the son of Mars and Astynome; for that - he, by an accident having seen Diana bathing herself, was - transformed into a rock; and the mountain which before - was named Gyrus was afterwards by the providence of the - Gods called Calydon.
-Upon this mountain grows an herb called myops. This
- if any one steep in water and wash his face with it, he
- shall lose his sight, but upon his atoning Diana, he shall
- recover it again;—as Dercyllus writes in his Third Book
- of Aetolics.
-
-
ARAXES is a river in Armenia, so called from Araxus the - son of Pylus. For he, contending with his grandfather Arbelus for the empire, shot him with an arrow. For which - being haunted by the Furies, he threw himself into the - river Bactros, for that reason called Araxes;—as Ctesiphon testifies in his First Book of the Persian Affairs. - Araxes, king of the Armenians, being at war with his - neighbors the Persians, before they came to a battle, was - told by the oracle that he should win the victory if he - sacrificed to the Gods two of the most noble virgins in his - kingdom. Now he, out of his paternal affection to his - children, spared his own daughters, and caused two lovely - virgins, the daughters of one of his nobility, to be laid - upon the altar. Which Mnesalces, the father of the victims, laying to heart, for a time concealed his indignation; - but afterwards, observing his opportunity, he killed both - the king's daughters, and then leaving his native soil fled - into Scythia. Which when Araxes understood, for grief - he threw himself into the river Halmus, which then was - altered and called Araxes.
-In this river grows a plant which is called araxa, which - in the language of the natives signifies a virgin-hater. - For that if it happen to be found by any virgin, it falls a - bleeding and dies away.
-In the same river there is also found a stone of a black - color, called sicyonus. This stone, when the oracle advises - the sacrificing of a human victim, is laid upon the altar of - the mischief-diverting Gods. And then, no sooner does - the priest touch it with his knife, but it sends forth a - stream of blood; at what time the superstitious sacrificers - retire, and with howlings and loud ohoning carry the stone - to the temple;—as Dorotheus the Chaldaean relates in - his Second Book of Stones.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Diorphus, so called - from Diorphus the son of the Earth, of whom this story is - reported. Mithras desirous to have a son, yet hating - woman-kind, lay with a stone, till he had heated it to that - degree that the stone grew big, and at the prefixed time - was delivered of a son, called Diorphus; who, growing up - and contending with Mars for courage and stoutness, was - by him slain, and by the providence of the Gods was - transformed into the mountain which was called Diorphus - by his name.
-In this mountain grows a tree, not unlike a pomegranate-tree, which yields plenty of apples, in taste like grapes. - Now if any one gather the ripest of this fruit, and do but - name Mars while he holds it in his hand, it will presently - grow green again;—as Ctesiphon witnesses in his Thirteenth Book of Trees. - -
-TIGRIS is a river of Armenia flowing into Araxes and the - lake of Arsacis, formerly called Sollax, which signifies - running and carried downward. It was called Tigris upon - this occasion.
-Bacchus, through the design of Juno running mad, wandered over sea and land, desirous to be quit of his distemper. At length coming into Armenia, and not being able - to pass the river before-mentioned, he called upon Jupiter; - who, listening to his prayers, sent him a tiger that carried - him safely over the water. In remembrance of which - accident, he called the river Tigris;—as Theophilus relates in his First Book of Stones. But Hermesianax the - Cyprian tells the story thus:—
-Bacchus falling in love with the Nymph Alphesiboea,
- and being able to vanquish her neither with presents nor
- entreaties, turned himself into the shape of the river Tigris,
-
-
In this river a stone is to be found, called myndan, very - white; which whoever possesses shall never be hurt by - wild beasts;—as Leo of Byzantium relates in his Third - Book of Rivers.
-Near to this river lies the mountain Gauran; so called - from Gauran the son of the satrap Roxanes; who, being - extremely religious and devout towards the Gods, received this reward of his piety, that of all the Persians he - only lived three hundred years; and dying at last without - being ever afflicted with any disease, was buried upon the - top of the mountain Gauran, where he had a sumptuous - monument erected to his memory. Afterwards, by the - providence of the Gods, the name of the mountain was - changed to that of Mausorus.
-In this mountain grows an herb, which is like to wild - barley. This herb the natives heat over the fire, and - anointing themselves with the oil of it, are never sick, till - the necessity of dying overtakes them;—as Sostratus - writes in his First Collection of Fabulous History. - -
-INDUS is a liver in India, flowing with a rapid violence - into the country of the fish-devourers. It was first called - Mausolus, from Mausolus the son of the Sun, but changed - its name for this reason.
-At the time when the mysteries of Bacchus were solemnized and the people were earnest at their devotion, Indus,
- one of the chief of the young nobility, by force deflowered
- Damasalcidas, the daughter of Oxyalcus the king of the
- country, as she was carrying the sacred basket; for which
-
-
In this river grows a certain stone called . . . which if - a virgin carry about her, she need never be afraid of being - deflowered.
-In the same river also grows an herb, not unlike to - bugloss. Which is an excellent remedy against the king's evil, being administered to the patient in warm water;— - as Clitophon the Rhodian reports in his First Book of Indian Relations.
-Near to this mountain lies the mountain Lilaeus, so - called from Lilaeus a shepherd; who, being very superstitious and a worshipper of the Moon alone, always performed her mysteries in the dead time of the night. Which - the rest of the Gods taking for a great dishonor, sent two - monstrous lions that tore him in pieces. Upon which - the Moon turned her adorer into a mountain of the same - name.
-In this mountain a stone is found which is called clitoris, - of a very black color, which the natives wear for ornament's sake in their ears;—as Aristotle witnesses in his - Fourth Book of Rivers.
-This pointer pattern extracts chapter.
+THIS is a river of India, which falls with an extraordinary swift stream into the Saronitic Syrtis. Chrysippe, by the impulse of Venus, whom she had offended, fell in love with her father Hydaspes, and not being able to curb her preternatural desires, by the help of her nurse, in the dead of the night got to his bed and received his caresses; after which, the king proving unfortunate in his affairs, he buried alive the old bawd that had betrayed him, and crucified his daughter. Nevertheless such was the excess of his grief for the loss of Chrysippe, that he threw himself into the river Indus, which was afterwards called by his name Hydaspes.
+Moreover in this river there grows a stone, which is called lychnis, which resembles the color of oil, and is very bright in appearance. And when they are searching after it, which they do when the moon increases, the pipers play all the while. Nor is it to be worn by any but the richer sort. Also near that part of the river which is called Pylae, there grows an herb which is very like a heliotrope, with the juice of which the people anoint their skins to prevent sunburning, and to secure them against the scorching of the excessive heat.
+The natives whenever they take their virgins tardy, nail them to a wooden cross, and fling them into this river, singing at the same time in their own language a hymn to Venus. Every year also they bury a condemned old woman near the top of the hill called Therogonos; at which time an infinite multitude of creeping creatures come down from the top of the hill, and devour the insects that hover about the buried carcass. This Chrysermus relates in his History of India, though Archelaus gives a more exact account of these things in his Treatise of Rivers.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Elephas, so called upon this occasion. When Alexander the Macedonian advanced with his army into India, and the natives were resolved to withstand him with all their force, the elephant upon which Porus, king of that region, was wont to ride, being of a sudden stung with a gad-bee, ran up to the top of the mountain of the sun, and there uttered these words distinctly in human speech: O king, my lord, descended from the race of Gegasius, forbear to attempt any thing against Alexander, for he is descended from Jupiter.
And having so said, he presently died. Which when Porus understood, afraid of Alexander, he fell at his feet and sued for peace. Which when he had obtained, he called the mountain Elephas;—as Dercyllus testifies in his Third Book of Mountains.
ISMENUS is a river of Boeotia, that washes the walls of Thebes. It was formerly called the foot of Cadmus, upon this occasion. When Cadmus had slain the dragon which kept the fountain of Mars, he was afraid to taste of the water, believing it was poisoned; which forced him to wander about in search of another fountain to allay his
Some time after, Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, being wounded by Apollo and in great pain, threw himself into the said river, which was then from his name called Ismenus;—as Sostratus relates in his Second Book of Rivers.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Cithaeron, formerly called Asterion for this reason. Boeotus the son of Neptune was desirous, of two noble ladies, to marry her that should be most beneficial to him; and while he tarried for both in the night-time upon the top of a certain nameless mountain, of a sudden a star fell from heaven upon the shoulders of Eurythemiste, and immediately vanished. Upon which Boeotus, understanding the meaning of the prodigy, married the virgin, and called the mountain Asterion from the accident that befell him. Afterwards it was called Cithaeron upon this occasion. Tisiphone, one of the Furies, falling in love with a most beautiful youth whose name was Cithaeron, and not being able to curb the impatience of her desires, declared her affection to him in a letter, to which he would not return any answer. Whereupon the Fury, missing her design, pulled one of the serpents from her locks, and flung it upon the young lad as he was keeping his sheep on the top of the mountain Asterion; where the serpent twining about his neck choked him to death. And thereupon by the will of the Gods the mountain was called Cithaeron;—as Leo of Byzantium writes in his History of Boeotia. But Hermesianax of Cyprus tells the story quite otherwise. For he says, that Helicon and Cithaeron were two
HEBRUS is a river of Thrace, deriving its former name of Rhombus from the many gulfs and whirlpools in the water.
+Cassander, king of that region, having married Crotonice, had by her a son whom he named Hebrus. But then being divorced from his first wife, he married Damasippe, the daughter of Atrax, and brought her home over his son's head; with whom the mother-in-law falling in love, invited him by letters to her embraces. But he, avoiding his mother-in-law as a Fury, gave himself over to the sport of hunting. On the other side the impious woman, missing her purpose, belied the chaste youth, and accused him of attempting to ravish her. Upon this Cassander, raging with jealousy, flew to the wood in a wild fury, and with his sword drawn pursued his son, as one that treacherously sought to defile his father's bed. Upon which the son, finding he could no way escape his father's wrath, threw himself into the river Rhombus, which was afterwards called Hebrus from the name of the young man;—as Timotheus testifies in his Eleventh Book of Rivers.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Pangaeus, so called upon this occasion. Pangaeus, the son of Mars and Critobule,
In the river before mentioned, grows an herb not much unlike to origanumn; the tops of which the Thracians cropping off burn upon a fire, and after they are filled with the fruits of Ceres, they hold their heads over the smoke, and snuff it up into their nostrils, letting it go down their throats, till at last they fall into a profound sleep.
+Also upon the mountain Pangaeus grows an herb, which is called the harp upon this occasion. The women that tore Orpheus in pieces cast his limbs into the river Hebrus; and his head being changed, the whole body was turned into the shape of a dragon. But as for his harp, such was the will of Apollo, it remained in the same form. And from the streaming blood grew up the herb which was called the harp; which, during the solemnity of the sacrifices to Bacchus, sends forth a sound like that of an harp when played upon. At which time the natives, being covered with the skins of young hinds and waving their thyrsuses in their hands, sing a hymn, of which these are part of the words,
as Clitonymus reports, in his Third Book of Thracian Relations.
+GANGES is a river in India, so called for this reason. A certain Calaurian nymph had by Indus a son called Ganges, conspicuous for his beauty. Who growing up to manhood,
In this river grows an herb resembling bugloss, which the natives bruise, and keep the juice very charily. With this juice in the dead of the night they go and besprinkle the tigers' dens; the virtue of which is such, that the tigers, not being able to stir forth by reason of the strong scent of the juice, are starved to death;—as Callisthenes reports in his Third Book of Hunting.
+Upon the banks of this river lies the mountain called the Anatole for this reason. The Sun, beholding the nymph Anaxibia innocently spending her time in dancing, fell passionately in love with her, and not able to curb his loose amours, pursued her with a purpose to ravish her. She therefore, finding no other way to escape him, fled to the temple of Orthian Diana, which was seated upon the mountain called Coryphe, and there immediately vanished away. Upon which the Sun, that followed her close at the heels, not knowing what was become of his beloved, overwhelmed with grief, rose in that very place. And from this accident it was that the natives called the top of that mountain Anatole, or the rising of the Sun;—as Caemaron reports in his Tenth Book of the Affairs of India.
+PHASIS is a river of Scythia, running by a city of the same name. It was formerly called Arcturus, deriving its name from the situation of the cold regions through which it runs. But the name of it was altered upon this occasion.
+Phasis, the child of the Sun and Ocyrrhoe daughter of Oceanus, slew his mother, whom he took in the very act of adultery. For which being tormented by the Furies appearing to him, he threw himself into the river Arcturus, which was afterwards called by his own name Phasis.
+In this river grows a reed, which is called leucophyllus, or the reed with the white leaf. This reed is found at the dawning of the morning light, at what time the sacrifices are offered to Hecate, at the time when the divinely inspired paean is chanted, at the beginning of the spring; when they who are troubled with jealous heads gather this reed, and strew it in their wives' chambers to keep them chaste. And the nature of the reed is such, that if any wild extravagant person happens to come rashly in drink into the room where it lies, he presently becomes deprived of his rational thoughts, and immediately confesses whatever he has wickedly done and intended to do. At what time they that are present to hear him lay hold of him, sew him up in a sack, and throw him into a hole called the Mouth of the Wicked, which is round like the mouth of a well. This after thirty days empties the body into the Lake Maeotis, that is full of worms; where of a sudden the body is seized and torn to pieces by several vultures unseen before, nor is it known from whence they come;— as Ctesippus relates in his Second Book of Scythian Relations.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Caucasus, which was before called Boreas's Bed, upon this occasion. Boreas in the heat of his amorous passion ravished away by force Chione, the daughter of Arcturus, and carried her to a certain hill which was called Niphantes, and upon her begot a son whom he called Hyrpax, who succeeded Heniochus in his kingdom. For which reason the mountain was first called Boreas's Bed; but afterwards Caucasus upon this occasion. After the fight of the Giants, Saturn,
Upon this mountain grows an herb which is called Prometheus, which Medea gathering and bruising made use of to protect Jason against her father's obstinacy.
+ARAR is a river in Gallia Celtica, deriving the name from its being mixed with the river Rhone. For it falls into the Rhone within the country of the Allobroges. It was formerly called Brigulus, but afterwards changed its name upon this occasion. Arar, as he was a hunting, entering into the wood, and there finding his brother Celtiber torn in pieces by the wild beasts, mortally wounded himself for grief, and fell into the river Brigulus; which from that accident was afterwards called by his own name Arar.
+In this river there breeds a certain large fish, which by the natives is called Clupaea. This fish during the increase of the moon is white; but all the while the moon is in the wane, it is altogether black; and when it grows over bulky, it is (as it were) stabbed by its own fins. In the head of it is found a stone like a corn of salt, which, being
Near to this river stands a mountain called Lugdunum, which changed its name upon this occasion. When Momorus and Atepomarus were dethroned by Seseroneus, in pursuance of the oracle's command they designed to build a city upon the top of the hill. But when they had laid the foundations, great numbers of crows with their wings expanded covered all the neighboring trees. Upon which Momorus, being a person well skilled in augury, called the city Lugdunum. For
PACTOLUS is a river of Lydia, that washes the walls of Sardis, formerly called Chrysorrhoas. For Chrysorrhoas, the son of Apollo and Agathippe, being a mechanic artist, and one that only lived from hand to mouth upon his trade, one time in the middle of the night made bold to break open the treasury of Croesus; and conveying thence a good quantity of gold, he made a distribution of it to his family. But being pursued by the king's officers, when he saw he must be taken, he threw himself into the river which was afterwards from his name called Chrysorrhoas, and afterwards changed into that of Pactolus upon this occasion.
+Pactolus, the son of. . . and Leucothea, during the performance of the mysteries sacred to Venus, ravished Demodice his own sister, not knowing who she was; for
Also in this river is to be found a stone which is called the preserver of the fields, resembling the color of silver, very hard to be found, in regard of its being mixed with the gold sand. The virtue of which is such, that the more wealthy Lydians buy it and lay it at the doors of their treasuries, by which means they preserve their treasure, whatever it be, safe from the seizure of pilfering hands. For upon the approach of thieves or robbers, the stone sends forth a sound like that of a trumpet. Upon which the thieves surprised, and believing themselves apprehended by officers, throw themselves headlong and break their necks; insomuch that the place where the thieves thus frighted come by their violent deaths is called Pactolus's prison.
+In this river also there grows an herb that bears a purple flower, and is called chrysopolis; by which the inhabitants of the neighboring cities try their purest gold. For just before they put their gold into the melting-pot, they touch it with this herb; at what time, if it be pure and unmixed, the leaves of the herb will be tinctured with the gold and preserve the substance of the matter; but if it be adulterated, they will not admit the discoloring moisture;—as Chrysermus relates in his Third Book of Rivers.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Tmolus, full of all manner of wild beasts, formerly called Carmanorion, from Carmanor the son of Bacchus and Alexirrhoea, who was killed by a wild boar as he was hunting; but afterward Tmolus upon this occasion.
+Tmolus, the son of Mars and Theogone, king of Lydia,
Upon this mountain grows a stone not unlike a pumice-stone, which is very rare to be found. This stone changes its color four times a day; and is to be seen only by- virgins that are not arrived at the years of understanding. But if marriageable virgins happen to see it, they can never receive any injury from those that attempt their chastity;—as Clitophon reports.
+LYCORMAS is a river of Aetolia, formerly called Evenus for this reason. Idas the son of Aphareus, after he had ravished away by violence Marpessa, with whom he was passionately in love, carried her away to Pleuron, a city of Aetolia. This rape of his daughter Evenus could by no means endure, and therefore pursued after the treacherous ravisher, till he came to the river Lycormas. But then despairing to overtake the fugitive, he threw himself for madness into the river, which from his own name was called Evenus.
+In this river grows an herb which is called sarissa, because it resembles a spear, of excellent use for those that are troubled with dim sight;—as Archelaus relates in his First Book of Rivers.
+Near to this river lies Myenus, from Myenus the son of Telestor and Alphesiboea; who, being beloved by his mother-in-law and unwilling to defile his father's bed, retired himself to the mountain Alphius. But Telestor, being made jealous of his wife, pursued his son into the wilderness; and followed him so close, that Myenus, not being able to escape, flung himself headlong from the top of the mountain, which for that reason was afterwards called Myenus.
+Upon this mountain grows a flower called the white violet, which, if you do but name the word step-dame, presently dies away;—as Dercyllus reports in his Third Book of Mountains.
+MAEANDER is a river of Asia, formerly called the Returner. For of all rivers in the world it is the only stream which, taking its rise from its own fountain, seems to run back to its own head.
+It is called Maeander from Maeander, the son of Cercaphus and Anaxibia, who, waging war with the Pessinuntines, made a vow to the Mother of the Gods, that if he obtained the victory, he would sacrifice the first that came to congratulate him for his good success. Now it happened that the first that met him were his son Archelaus, his mother, and his sister. All which, though so nearly related to him, he offered in sacrifice to the satisfaction of his vow. But then no less grieved for what he had done, he cast himself into the river, which from this accident was afterwards called by his own name Maeander;—as Timolaus tells us in his First Book of Phrygian Relations.
But Demostratus of Apamea relates the story thus: Maeander being a second time elected general against the Pessinuntines, and obtaining the victory quite contrary to his expectation, gave to his soldiers the offerings due to the Mother of the Gods. At which the Goddess being offended, she deprived him of his reason to that degree, that in the height of his madness he slew both his wife and his son. But coming somewhat to himself and repenting of what he had done, he threw himself into the river, which by his name was called Maeander.
+In this river there is a certain stone, which by Antiphrasis is called sophron, or the sober-stone; which if you drop into the bosom of any man, it presently makes him mad to that degree as to murder his nearest relations, but having once atoned the Mother of the Gods, he is presently restored to his wits;—as Damaratus testifies in his Third Book of Rivers. And Archelaus makes mention of the same in his First Book of Stones.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Sipylus, so called from Sipylus the son of Agenor and Dioxippe. For he having killed his mother by mistake, and being haunted by the Furies, retired to the Ceraunian mountain, and there hanged himself for grief. After which, by the providence of the Gods, the mountain was called Sipylus.
+In this mountain grows a stone that resembles a cylinder, which when children that are obedient to their parents find, they lay it up in the temple of the Mother of the Gods. Nor do they ever transgress out of impiety; but reverence their parents, and are obedient to their superior relations;—as Agatharchides the Samian relates in his Fourth Book of Stones, and Demaratus in his Fourth Book of Phrygia.
MARSYAS is a river of Phrygia, flowing by the city Celaenae, and formerly called the fountain of Midas for this reason. Midas, king of Phrygia, travelling in the remoter parts of the country, and wanting water, stamped upon the ground; and there presently appeared a golden fountain. But the water proving gold, and both he and his soldiers being ready to perish for thirst, he invoked the compassion of Bacchus, who listening to his prayers supplied him with water. The Phrygians having by this means quenched their thirst, Midas named the river that issued from the spring the Fountain of Midas. Afterwards it was called Marsyas, upon this occasion.
+Marsyas being overcome and flayed by Apollo, certain Satyrs are said to have sprung from the stream of his blood; as also a river bearing the name of Marsyas;—as Alexander Cornelius recites in his Third Book of Phrygian Relations.
+But Euemeridas the Cnidian tells the story after this manner. It happened that the wine-bag which was made of Marsyas's skin, being corroded by time and carried away negligently by the wind, fell at last from the land into Midas's well; and driving along with the stream, was taken up by a fisherman. At what time Pisistratus the Lacedaemonian, being commanded by the oracle to build near the place where the relics of the Satyr were found, reflected upon the accident, and in obedience to the oracle having built a fair city, called it Noricum, which in the Phrygian language signifies a wine-bag.
+In this river grows an herb called the pipe, which being moved in the wind yields a melodious sound;—as Dercyllus reports in his First Book of Satyrics.
+Near to this river also lies the mountain Berecyntus, deriving its name from Berecyntus, the first priest to the
STRYMON is a river of Thrace, that flows along by the city Edonis. It was formerly called Palaestinus, from Palaestinus the son of Neptune. For he being at war with his neighbors, and seized with a violent sickness, sent his son Haliacmon to be general of his army; who, rashly giving battle to his enemies, was slain in the fight. The tidings of which misfortune being brought to Palaestinus, he privately withdrew himself from his guards, and in the desperation of his grief flung himself into the River Conozus, which from that accident was afterwards called Palaestinus. But as for Strymon, he was the son of Mars and Helice; and hearing that his son Rhesus was slain, he flung himself into the river Palaestinus, which was after that called Strymon, by his own name.
+In this river grows a stone which is called pausilypus, or the grief-easing stone. This stone if any one find who is oppressed with grief, he shall presently be eased of his sorrow;—as Jason of Byzantium relates in his Thracian Histories.
+Near to this river lie the mountains Rhodope and Haemus. These being brother and sister, and both falling in love with each other, the one was so presumptuous as to call his sister his Juno, the other to call her brother her Jupiter; which so offended the Deities, that they changed them into mountains bearing their own names.
+In these two mountains grow certain stones, which are
SAGARIS is a river of Phrygia, formerly called Xerobates because in the summer time it was generally dry. But it was called Sagaris for this reason: Sagaris, the son of Myndon and Alexirrhoe, contemning and slighting the mysteries of the Mother of the Gods, frequently affronted and derided her priests the Galli. At which the Goddess heinously offended, struck him with madness to that degree, that in one of his raging fits he flung himself into the river Xerobates, which from that time forward was called Sagaris.
+In this river grows a stone, which is called autoglyphus, that is, naturally engraved; for it is found with the Mother of the Gods by nature engraved upon it. This stone, which is rarely to be found, if any of the Galli or gelded priests happen to light upon, he makes no wonder at it, but undauntedly brooks the sight of a preternatural action;—as Aretazes reports in his Phrygian Relations.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Ballenaeus, which in the Phrygian language signifies
In this river is to be found a stone called aster, which from the latter end of autumn shines at midnight like fire.
SCAMANDER is a river of Troas, which was formerly called Xanthus, but changed its name upon this occasion. Scamander, the son of Corybas and Demodice, having suddenly beheld the ceremonies while the mysteries of Rhea were solemnizing, immediately ran mad, and being hurried away by his own fury to the River Xanthus, flung himself into the stream, which from thence was called Scamander.
+In this river grows an herb like a vetch, that bears a cod with berries rattling in it when they are ripe; whence it derived the name of
Near to this river lies the mountain Ida, formerly Gargarus; on the top of which stand the altars of Jupiter and of the Mother of the Gods. But it was called Ida upon this occasion. Aegesthius, who descended from Jupiter, falling passionately in love with the nymph Ida, obtained her good-will, and begat the Idaean Dactyli, or priests of the Mother of the Gods. After which, Ida running mad in the temple of Rhea, Aegesthius, in remembrance of the love which he bare her, called the mountain by her name.
+In this mountain grows a stone called cryphius, as being never to be found but when the mysteries of the Gods are solemnizing;—as Heraclitus the Sicyonian writes in his Second Book of Stones.
TANAIS is a river of Scythia, formerly called the Amazonian river, because the Amazons bathed themselves therein; but it altered its name upon this occasion. Tanais, the son of Berossus and Lysippe, one of the Amazons, became a vehement hater of the female sex, and looking upon marriage as ignominious and dishonorable, applied himself wholly to martial affairs. This so offended Venus, that she caused him to fall passionately in love with his own mother. True it is, at first he withstood the force of his passion; but finding he could not vanquish the fatal necessity of yielding to divine impulse, and yet desirous to preserve his respect and piety towards his mother, he flung himself into the Amazonian river, which was afterwards called Tanais, from the name of the young man.
+In this river grows a plant which is called halinda, resembling a colewort; which the inhabitants bruising, and anointing their bodies with the juice of it, find themselves in a condition better able to endure the extremity of the cold; and for that reason, in their own language they call it Berossus's oil.
+In this river grows a stone not unlike to crystal, resembling the shape of a man with a crown upon his head. Whoever finds the stone when the king dies, and has it ready against the time that the people meet upon the banks of the river to choose a new sovereign, is presently elected king, and receives the sceptre of the deceased prince;—as Ctesiphon relates in his Third Book of Plants; and Aristobulus gives us the same account in his First Book of Stones.
+Near to this river also lies a mountain, in the language of the natives called Brixaba, which signifies the
In this mountain grows an herb, by the barbarians called phryxa (which being interpreted signifies
THERMODON is a river of Scythia, deriving its name from this accident. It was formerly called Crystallus, as being often frozen in the summer, the situation of the place producing this effect. But that name was altered upon this occasion. . . .
+THE Nile is a river in Egypt, that runs by the city of Alexandria. It was formerly called Melas, from Melas the son of Neptune; but afterwards it was called Aegyptus upon this occasion. Aegyptus, the son of Vulcan and
Garmathone, queen of Egypt, having lost her son Chrysochoas while he was yet very young, with all her servants and friends most bitterly bemoaned her loss. At what time Isis appearing to her, she surceased her sorrow for a while, and putting on the countenance of a feigned gratitude, kindly entertained the goddess. She, willing to make a suitable return to the queen for the piety which she expressed in her reception, persuaded Osiris to bring back her son from the subterranean regions. When Osiris undertook to do this, at the importunity of his wife, Cerberus —whom some call the Terrible—barked so loud, that Nilus, Garmathone's husband, struck with a sudden frenzy, threw himself into the river Aegyptus, which from thence was afterwards called Nilus.
+In this river grows a stone, not unlike to a bean, which so soon as any dog happens to see, he ceases to bark. It also expels the evil spirit out of those that are possessed, if held to the nostrils of the party afflicted.
+There are other stones which are found in this river, called kollotes, which the swallows picking up against the time that Nilus overflows, build up the wall which is called the Chelidonian wall, which restrains the inundation of
Upon this river lies the mountain Argyllus, so called for this reason.
+Jupiter in the heat of his amorous desires ravished away the Nymph Arge from Lyctus, a city of Crete, and then carried her to a mountain of Egypt called Argillus, and there begat a son, whom he named Dionysus (or Bacchus); who, growing up to years of manhood, in honor of his mother called the hill Argillus; and then mustering together an army of Pans and Satyrs, first conquered the Indian's, and then subduing Spain, left Pan behind him there, the chief commander and governor of those places. Pan by his own name called that country Pania, which was afterward by his posterity called Spania;—as Sosthenes relates in the Thirteenth Book of Iberian Relations.
+HIMERUS, the son of the Nymph Taygete and Lacedaemon, through the anger of offended Venus, at a revelling that lasted all night, deflowered his sister Cleodice, not knowing what he did. But the next day being informed of the truth of the matter, he laid it so to heart, that through excess of grief he flung himself into the river Marathon, which from thence was called Himeros; but after that Eurotas, upon this occasion.
+The Lacedaemonians being at war with the Athenians, and staying for the full moon, Eurotas their captain-general, despising all religion, would needs fight his enemies,. though at the same time he was warned by thunder and' lightning. However, having lost his army, the ignominy of his loss so incessantly perplexed him, that he flung himself into the river Himerus, which from that accident was afterwards called Eurotas.
+In this river grows a stone which is shaped like a helmet, called thrasydeilos, or
Near to this river lies the mountain Taygetus, deriving its name from the nymph Taygete; who, after Jupiter had deflowered her, being overcome by grief, ended her days by hanging at the summit of the mountain Amyclaeus, which from thence was called Taygetus.
+Upon this mountain grows a plant called Charisia, which the women at the beginning of the spring tied about their necks, to make themselves more passionately beloved by men;—as Cleanthes reports in his First Book of Mountains. But Sosthenes the Cnidian is more accurate in the relation of these things, from whom Hermogenes borrowed the subject of his writing.
+INACHUS is a river in the territories of Argos, formerly called Carmanor. Afterwards Haliacmon, for this reason.
+Haliacmon, a Tirynthian by birth, while he kept sheep upon the mountain Coccygium, happened against his will to see Jupiter and Rhea sporting together; for which being struck mad, and hurried by the violence of the frenzy, he flung himself into the river Carmanor, which after that was called Haliacmon. Afterwards it was called Inachus upon this occasion.
+Inachus, the son of Oceanus, after that Jupiter had deflowered his daughter Io, pursued the Deity close at the heels, abusing and cursing him all the way as he went.
In this river grows an herb called cynura, not unlike our common rue, which the women that desire to miscarry without any danger lay upon their navels, being first steeped in wine.
+There is also found in this river a certain stone, not unlike a beryl, which in the hands of those who intend to bear false witness will grow black. Of these stones there are many laid up in the temple of Juno Prosymnaea;—as Timotheus relates in his Argolica, and Agatho the Samian in his Second Book of Rivers.
+Agathocles the Milesian, in his History of Rivers, also adds, that Inachus for his impiety was thunderstruck by Jupiter, and so the river dried up.
+Near to this river lie the mountains Mycenae, Apesantus, Coccygium, and Athenaeum; so called for these reasons. Apesantus was first called Selenaeus. For Juno, resolving to be revenged upon Hercules, called the moon (Selene) to her assistance, who by the help of her magical charms filled a large chest full of foam and froth, out of which sprang an immense lion; which Iris binding with her own girdle carried to the mountain Opheltium, where the lion killed and tore in pieces Apesantus, one of the shepherds belonging to that place. And from that accident, by the will of the Gods, the hill was called Apesantus;—as Demodocus writes in his First Book of the History of Hercules.
+In this river grows an herb called selene, with the froth of which, being gathered in the spring, the shepherds anoint their feet, and keep them from being bit or stung by any creeping vermin.
+Mycenae was formerly called Argion, from the many-eyed
In this mountain there is found a stone, which is called corybas, of a crow-color, which he that finds and wears about him shall never be afraid of any monstrous apparitions. As for the mountain Apesantus, this may be added, that Apesantus, the son of Acrisius, as he was a hunting in that place, chanced to tread upon a venomous serpent, which occasioned his death. Whom when his father had buried, in memory of his son he named the hill Apesantus, which before was called Selinuntius.
+The mountain Coccygium derived its name from this accident. Jupiter falling desperately in love with his sister Juno, and having vanquished her by his importunity, begat a male child. From whence the mountain, before called Lyrceum, was named Coccygium;—as Agathonymus relates in his Persis.
+In this mountain grows a tree, which is called paliurus; upon the boughs of which whatever fowl happens to perch, it is presently entangled as it were with bird-lime, and cannot stir; only the cuckoo it lets go free, without any harm; —as Ctesiphon testifies in his First Book of Trees.
+As for the mountain Athenaeum, it derives its name from Minerva. For after the destruction of Troy, Diomede returning to Argos, ascended the mountain Ceraunius, and there erecting a temple to Minerva, called the mountain Athenaeum from her name Athena.
+Upon the top of this mountain grows a root like to that of rue, which if any woman unwarily taste of, she presently runs mad. This root is called Adrastea;—as Plesimachus writes in his Second Book of the Returns of the Heroes.
+APHEUS is a river of Arcadia, running by the walls of Pisa, a city of Olympia. It was formerly called Stymphelus, from Stymphelus the son of Mars and Dormothea; who, having lost his brother Alcmaeon, threw himself for grief into the river Nyctimus, for that reason called Stymphelus. Afterwards it was called Alpheus upon this occasion.
+Alpheus, one of those that derive their descent from the Sun, contending with his brother Cercaphus about the kingdom, slew him. For which being chased away and pursued by the Furies, he flung himself into the river Nyctimus, which after that was called Alpheus.
+In this river grows a plant which is called cenchritis, resembling a honey-comb, the decoction of which, being given by the physicians to those that are mad, cures them of their frenzy;–as Ctesias relates in his First Book of Rivers.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Cronium, so called upon this occasion. After the Giants' war, Saturn, to avoid
In this mountain is found a stone, which is called the cylinder, upon this occasion. For as oft as Jupiter either thunders or lightens, so often this stone through fear rolls down from the top of the mountain;—as Dercyllus writes in his First Book of Stones.
+EUPHRATES is a river of Parthia, washing the walls of Babylon, formerly called Medus from Medus the son of Artaxeres. He, in the heat of his lust, having ravished away and deflowered Roxane, and finding he was sought after by the king, in order to be brought to punishment, threw himself into the river Xaranda, which from thenceforward was called by his name Medus. Afterwards it was called Euphrates upon this occasion.
+Euphrates the son of Arandacus, finding his son Axurta abed with his mother, and thinking him to be some one of the citizens, provoked by his jealousy, drew his sword and nailed him to the bed. But perceiving himself the author of what could not be recalled, he flung himself for grief into the river Medus, which from that time forward was called by his name Euphrates.
+In this river grows a stone called aetites, which midwives applying to the navels of women that are in hard labor, it causes them to bring forth with little pain.
+In the same river also there grows an herb which is called axalla, which signifies heat. This herb they that are troubled with quartan-agues apply to their breasts, and are presently delivered from the fit;—as Chrysermus writes in his Thirteenth Book of Rivers.
+Near this river lies the mountain Drimylus, where grows a stone not unlike a sardonyx, worn by kings and princes upon their diadems, and greatly available against dimness of sight;–as Nicias Mallotes writes in his Book of Stones.
+CAICUS is a river of Mysia, formerly called Astraeus, from Astraeus the son of Neptune. For he, in the height of Minerva's nocturnal solemnities having deflowered his sister by a mistake, took a ring at the same time from her finger; by which when he understood the next day the error which he had committed, for grief he threw himself headlong into the river Adurus, which from thence was called Astraeus. Afterwards it came to be called Caicus upon this occasion.
+Caicus, the son of Hermes and Ocyrrhoe the Nymph, having slain Timander one of the noblemen of the country, and fearing the revenge of his relations, flung himself into the river Astraeus, which from that accident was called Caicus.
+In this river grows a sort of poppy, which instead of fruit bears stones. Of these there are some which are black and shaped like harps, which the Mysians throw upon their ploughed lands; and if the stones lie still in the place where they are thrown, it is a sign of a barren year; but if they fly away like so many locusts, they prognosticate a plentiful harvest.
+In the same river also grows an herb which is called elipharmacus, which the physicians apply to such as are troubled with immoderate fluxes of blood, as having a peculiar virtue to stop the orifices of the veins;—according to the relation of Timagoras in his First Book of Rivers.
+Adjoining to the banks of this river lies the mountain spare.
Thus Teuthras, being restored to his former health, called the mountain by his own name Teuthras.
In this mountain grows a stone called antipathes (or the resister), which is of excellent virtue to cure scabs and leprosies, being powdered and mixed with wine;—as Ctesias the Cnidian tells us in his Second Book of Mountains.
+ACHELOUS is a river of Aetolia, formerly called Thestius. This Thestius was the son of Mars and Pisidice, who upon some domestic discontent travelled as far as Sicyon, where
Achelous, the son of Oceanus and the Nymph Nais, having deflowered his daughter Cletoria by mistake, flung himself for grief into the river Thestius, which then by his own name was called Achelous.
+In this river grows an herb, which they call zaclon, very much resembling wool; this if you bruise and cast into wine, it becomes water, and preserves the smell but not the virtues of the wine.
+In the same river also is found a certain stone of a mixed black and lead color, called linurgus from the effect; for if you throw it upon a linen cloth, by a certain affectionate union it assumes the form of the linen, and turns white;—as Antisthenes relates in the Third Book of his Meleagris, though Diocles the Rhodian more accurately tells us the same thing in his Aetolics.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Calydon, so called from Calydon, the son of Mars and Astynome; for that he, by an accident having seen Diana bathing herself, was transformed into a rock; and the mountain which before was named Gyrus was afterwards by the providence of the Gods called Calydon.
+Upon this mountain grows an herb called myops. This if any one steep in water and wash his face with it, he shall lose his sight, but upon his atoning Diana, he shall recover it again;—as Dercyllus writes in his Third Book of Aetolics.
ARAXES is a river in Armenia, so called from Araxus the son of Pylus. For he, contending with his grandfather Arbelus for the empire, shot him with an arrow. For which being haunted by the Furies, he threw himself into the river Bactros, for that reason called Araxes;—as Ctesiphon testifies in his First Book of the Persian Affairs. Araxes, king of the Armenians, being at war with his neighbors the Persians, before they came to a battle, was told by the oracle that he should win the victory if he sacrificed to the Gods two of the most noble virgins in his kingdom. Now he, out of his paternal affection to his children, spared his own daughters, and caused two lovely virgins, the daughters of one of his nobility, to be laid upon the altar. Which Mnesalces, the father of the victims, laying to heart, for a time concealed his indignation; but afterwards, observing his opportunity, he killed both the king's daughters, and then leaving his native soil fled into Scythia. Which when Araxes understood, for grief he threw himself into the river Halmus, which then was altered and called Araxes.
+In this river grows a plant which is called araxa, which in the language of the natives signifies a virgin-hater. For that if it happen to be found by any virgin, it falls a bleeding and dies away.
+In the same river there is also found a stone of a black color, called sicyonus. This stone, when the oracle advises the sacrificing of a human victim, is laid upon the altar of the mischief-diverting Gods. And then, no sooner does the priest touch it with his knife, but it sends forth a stream of blood; at what time the superstitious sacrificers retire, and with howlings and loud ohoning carry the stone to the temple;—as Dorotheus the Chaldaean relates in his Second Book of Stones.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Diorphus, so called from Diorphus the son of the Earth, of whom this story is reported. Mithras desirous to have a son, yet hating woman-kind, lay with a stone, till he had heated it to that degree that the stone grew big, and at the prefixed time was delivered of a son, called Diorphus; who, growing up and contending with Mars for courage and stoutness, was by him slain, and by the providence of the Gods was transformed into the mountain which was called Diorphus by his name.
+In this mountain grows a tree, not unlike a pomegranate-tree, which yields plenty of apples, in taste like grapes. Now if any one gather the ripest of this fruit, and do but name Mars while he holds it in his hand, it will presently grow green again;—as Ctesiphon witnesses in his Thirteenth Book of Trees.
+TIGRIS is a river of Armenia flowing into Araxes and the lake of Arsacis, formerly called Sollax, which signifies running and carried downward. It was called Tigris upon this occasion.
+Bacchus, through the design of Juno running mad, wandered over sea and land, desirous to be quit of his distemper. At length coming into Armenia, and not being able to pass the river before-mentioned, he called upon Jupiter; who, listening to his prayers, sent him a tiger that carried him safely over the water. In remembrance of which accident, he called the river Tigris;—as Theophilus relates in his First Book of Stones. But Hermesianax the Cyprian tells the story thus:—
+Bacchus falling in love with the Nymph Alphesiboea, and being able to vanquish her neither with presents nor entreaties, turned himself into the shape of the river Tigris,
In this river a stone is to be found, called myndan, very white; which whoever possesses shall never be hurt by wild beasts;—as Leo of Byzantium relates in his Third Book of Rivers.
+Near to this river lies the mountain Gauran; so called from Gauran the son of the satrap Roxanes; who, being extremely religious and devout towards the Gods, received this reward of his piety, that of all the Persians he only lived three hundred years; and dying at last without being ever afflicted with any disease, was buried upon the top of the mountain Gauran, where he had a sumptuous monument erected to his memory. Afterwards, by the providence of the Gods, the name of the mountain was changed to that of Mausorus.
+In this mountain grows an herb, which is like to wild barley. This herb the natives heat over the fire, and anointing themselves with the oil of it, are never sick, till the necessity of dying overtakes them;—as Sostratus writes in his First Collection of Fabulous History.
+INDUS is a liver in India, flowing with a rapid violence into the country of the fish-devourers. It was first called Mausolus, from Mausolus the son of the Sun, but changed its name for this reason.
+At the time when the mysteries of Bacchus were solemnized and the people were earnest at their devotion, Indus, one of the chief of the young nobility, by force deflowered Damasalcidas, the daughter of Oxyalcus the king of the country, as she was carrying the sacred basket; for which
In this river grows a certain stone called . . . which if a virgin carry about her, she need never be afraid of being deflowered.
+In the same river also grows an herb, not unlike to bugloss. Which is an excellent remedy against the king's evil, being administered to the patient in warm water;— as Clitophon the Rhodian reports in his First Book of Indian Relations.
+Near to this mountain lies the mountain Lilaeus, so called from Lilaeus a shepherd; who, being very superstitious and a worshipper of the Moon alone, always performed her mysteries in the dead time of the night. Which the rest of the Gods taking for a great dishonor, sent two monstrous lions that tore him in pieces. Upon which the Moon turned her adorer into a mountain of the same name.
+In this mountain a stone is found which is called clitoris, of a very black color, which the natives wear for ornament's sake in their ears;—as Aristotle witnesses in his Fourth Book of Rivers.
+
- No one will attempt to An elementary explanation of the ordinary scale and of the names of the notes
- (which are here retained without any attempt at translation) may be of use to the
- reader. The most ancient scale is said to have had only four notes, corresponding to the
- four strings of the tetrachord. But before Terpander's time two forms of the
- heptachord (with seven strings) were already in use. One of these was enlarged to
- an octachord (with eight strings) by adding the octave (called study this treatise on music, without some previous
- knowledge of the principles of Greek music, with its various moods, scales, and
- combinations of tetrachords. The whole subject is treated by Boeckh, De Metris
- Pindari (in Vol. I. 2 of his edition of Pindar); and more at length in Westphal's
- Harmonik und Melopöie der Griechen (in Rossbach and Westphal's Metrik, Vol. II. 1).
-
- e
- f
- g
- a
- b
- c
- d
- e (octave)
The note called lowest) is the highest in tone.
The other of the two heptachords mentioned above contained the octave, but
- omitted the
These simple scales were enlarged by the addition of higher and lower notes,
- four at the bottom of the scale (i.e. before
The harmonic intervals, discovered by Pythagoras, are the Octave (Fifth (Sesquialter); the Fourth (Sesquilerce);
- and the Tone (Sesquioctave). (G.)
For this reason, upon the second day of the Saturnalian
- festival, the famous Onesicrates invited certain persons, the
- best skilled in music, to a banquet; by name Soterichus
-
-
-
-
Now then, you that are of the grand musical chorus, - tell your friends, who was the first that brought music - into use; what time has added for the advantage of the - science; who have been the most famous of its professors; - and lastly, for what and how far it may be beneficial to - mankind.
-This the scholar propounded; to which Lysias made
- reply. Noble Onesicrates, said he, you desire the solution
- of a hard question, that has been by many already proposed. For of the Platonics the most, of the Peripatetic
- philosophers the best, have made it their business to compile several treatises concerning the ancient music and the
- reasons why it came to lose its pristine perfection. Nay,
-
- nomes,
- nomes were musical compositions of great simplicity and severity, something resembling the most ancient melodies of our church music.
(G.)
Now the measures appointed by these persons, noble - Onesicrates, in reference to such songs as are to be sung - to the flutes or pipes, were distinguished by these names, - —Apothetus, Elegiac, Comarchius, Schoenion, Cepion, - Tenedius, and Trimeles (or of three parts).
-To these succeeding ages added another sort, which were
- called Polymnastia. But the measures set down for those
- that played and sung to the harp, being the invention of
- Terpander, were much more ancient than the former. To
- these he gave the several appellations of Boeotian, Aeolian,
- Trochaean, the Acute, Cepion, Terpandrian, and Tetraoedian.
Alexander in his Collections of Phrygia says, that - Olympus was the first that brought into Greece the manner of touching the strings with a quill; and next to him - were the Idaean Dactyli; Hyagnis was the first that sang - to the pipe; after him his son Marsyas, then Olympus; - that Terpander imitated Homer in his verses and Orpheus in his musical compositions; but that Orpheus never - imitated any one, since in his time there were none but - such as composed to the pipe, which was a manner quite - different from that of Orpheus. Clonas, a composer of - nomes for flute-music, and somewhat later than Terpander, as the Arcadians affirm, was born in Tegea or, as the - Boeotians allege, at Thebes. After Terpander and Clonas - flourished Archilochus; yet there are some writers who - affirm, that Ardalus the Troezenian taught the manner of - composing to wind-music before Clonas. There was also the - poet Polymnestus, the son of Meles the Colophonian, who - invented the Polymnestian measures. They farther write - that Clonas invented the nomes Apothetus and Schoenion. - Of Polymnestus mention is made by Pindar and Alcman, - both lyric poets; but of several of the lyric nomes said to - be instituted by Terpander they make Philammon (the ancient Delphian) author.
-Now the music appropriated to the harp, such as it
- was in the time of Terpander, continued in all its simplicity, till Phrynis grew into esteem. For it was not the
- ancient custom to make lyric poems in the present style, or
- to intermix measures and rhythms. For in each nome
- they were careful to observe its own proper pitch; whence
- came the expression nome (from law), because it was
- unlawful to alter the pitch appointed for each one. At
- length, falling from their devotion to the Gods, they began
- to sing the verses of Homer and other poets. This is
- manifest by the proems of Terpander. Then for the form
-
-
Having thus discoursed of the several nomes appropriated to the stringed as well as to the wind instruments,
- we will now speak something in particular concerning
- those peculiar to the wind instruments. First they say,
- that Olympus, a Phrygian player upon the flute, invented
- a certain nome in honor of Apollo, which he called Polycephalus,many-headed. (G.)
There was also another mood in use among the ancients, called Cradias, which Hipponax says Mimnermus - always delighted in. For formerly they that played upon - the flute sang also elegies at the same time set to notes. - Which the description of the Panathenaea concerning the - musical combat makes manifest. Among the rest, Sacadas - of Argos set several odes and elegies to music, he himself - being also a good flute-player and thrice a victor at the - Pythian games. Of him Pindar makes mention. Now - whereas in the time of Polymnestus and Sacadas there - existed three musical moods, the Dorian, Phrygian, and - Lydian, it is said that Sacadas composed a strophe in every - one of those moods, and then taught the choruses to sing - the first after the Dorian manner, the second according to - the Phrygian, and the third after the Lydian manner; and - this nome was called Trimeres (or threefold) by reason of - the shifting of the moods, although in the Sicyonian catalogue of the poets Clonas is said to be the inventor of this - name.
-Music then received its first constitution from Terpander at Sparta. Of the second constitution, Thaletas the
- Gortinean, Xenodamus the Cytherean, Xenocritus the Locrian, Polymnestus the Colophonian, and Sacadas the
- Argive were deservedly acknowledged to be the authors.
- For these, having introduced the Gymnopaediae into Lacedaemon, settled the so-called Apodeixeis (or Exhibitions)
-
-
Polymnestus also composed nomes for flute-music; - but in the Orthian nome he made use of his lyric vein, as - the students in harmony declare. But in this we cannot - be positive, because we have nothing of certainty concerning it from antiquity; and whether Thaletas of Crete was - a composer of hymns is much doubted. For Glaucus, - asserting Thaletas to be born after Archilochus, says that he - imitated the odes of Archilochus, only he made them longer, - and used the Paeonic and Cretic rhythm, which neither - Archilochus nor Orpheus nor Terpander ever did; for - Thaletas learned these from Olympus, and became a good - poet besides. As for Xenocritus the Locrian from Italy, - it is much questioned whether he was a maker of paeans - or not, as being one that always took heroic subjects with - dramatic action for his verses, for which reason some - there were who called his arguments Dithyrambic. More - over, Glaucus asserts Thaletas to have preceded him in - time.
-Olympus, by the report of Aristoxenus, is supposed
- by the musicians to have been the inventor of the enharmonic species of music; for before him there was no other
- than the diatonic and chromatic. And it is thought that
- the invention of the enharmonic species was thus brought
-
- The relations of the enharmonic scale to the ordinary diatonic are thus stated
- by Westphal (pp. 124–126), The b being here substituted for the German h:—
-
- e and f and between b and c is called diesis, and represents
- a quarter-tone. The section in Westphal containing this scheme will greatly aid the
- interpretation of § 11 of Plutarch. (G.)spondee.
It is defined by him (according
- to Aristides Quintilianus) as the raising of the tone through three dieses (or quartertones). (G.)
These were the beginnings of enharmonic music; afterwards the semitone was also divided, as well in the Phrygian as Lydian moods. But Olympus seems to have - advanced music by producing something never known or - heard of before, and to have gained to himself the honor - of being the most excellent, not only in the Grecian but in - all other music.
-Let us now proceed to rhythms; for there were - several varieties of these, as well in musical as in rhythmical composition. And here Terpander, among all those - novelties with which he adorned music, introduced an - elegant manner, that gave it much life. After him, beside - the Terpandrian, which he did not relinquish, Polymnestus - brought in use another of his own, retaining however the - former elegant manner, as did also Thaletas and Sacadas. - Other innovations were also made by Alkman and Stesichorus, - who nevertheless receded not from the ancient forms. But - Crexus, Timotheus, and Philoxenus, and those other poets - of the same age, growing more arrogant and studious of - novelty, affected those other manners now called Philanthropic and Thematic. For now the fewness of strings and - the plainness and majesty of the old music are looked upon - as absolutely out of date.
-And now, having discoursed to the best of my ability
- of the ancient music and the first inventors of it, and how
- succeeding ages brought it to more and more perfection, I
- shall make an end, and give way to my friend Soterichus,
-
-
Most noble Onesicrates, said he, since you have
- engaged us to speak our knowledge concerning the most
- venerable excellencies of music, which is most pleasing to
- the Gods, I cannot but approve the learning of our master
- Lysias, and his great memory in reciting all the inventors
- of the ancient music, and those who have written concerning it. But I must needs say, that he has given us this
- account, trusting only to what he has found recorded. We
- on the other side have not heard of any man that was the
- inventor of the benefits of music, but of the God Apollo,
- adorned with all manner of virtue. The flute was neither
- the invention of Marsyas nor Olympus nor Hyagnis; nor
- was the harp Apollo's invention only, but as a God he was
- the inventor of all the music both of the flute and harp.
- This is manifest from the dances and sacrifices which were
- solemnized to Apollo, as Alcaeus and others in their hymns
- relate. His statue also placed in the Temple of Delos
- holds in his right hand a bow; at his left the Graces stand,
- with every one a musical instrument in her hands, one carrying a harp, another a flute, another with a shepherd's
- pipe set to her lips. And that this is no conceit of mine
- appears from this, that Anticles and Ister have testified the
- same in their commentaries upon these things. And the
- statue is reported to be so ancient, that the artificers were
- said to have lived in the time of Hercules. The youth
- also that carries the Tempic laurel into Delphi is accompanied by one playing upon the flute. And the sacred
- presents of the Hyperboreans were sent of old to Delos,
- attended with flutes, pipes, and harps. Some have thought
- that the God himself played upon the flute, as the best of
-
-
The ancients made use of it for its worth, as they - did all other beneficial sciences. But our men of art, contemning its ancient majesty, instead of that manly, grave, - heaven-born music, so acceptable to the Gods, have brought - into the theatres a sort of effeminate musical tattling, mere - sound without substance; which Plato utterly rejects in the - third book of his commonwealth, refusing the Lydian harmony as fit only for lamentations. And they say that this - was first instituted for doleful songs. Aristoxenus, in his first - book of music, tells us how that Olympus sang an elegy - upon the death of Python in the Lydian mood, though - some will have Menalippides to be the author of that song. - Pindar, in his paean on the nuptials of Niobe, asserts that - the Lydian harmony was first used by Anthippus. Others - affirm, that Torebus was the first that made use of that - sort of harmony; among the rest, Dionysius the iambic - writer.
-The mixed Lydian moves the affections, and is fit - for tragedies. This mood, as Aristoxenus alleges, was - invented by Sappho, from whom the tragedians learned it - and joined it with the Doric. The one becomes a majestic, - lofty style, the other mollifies and stirs to pity; both which - are the properties of tragedy. The history of music, however, made Pythoclides the flute-player to be the author of - it; and Lysis reports that Lamprocles the Athenian, finding - that the diazeuxis (or separation of two tetrachords) was - not where almost all others thought it had been, but toward - the treble, made such a scheme as is now from paramese to - the highest hypate. But for the softer Lydian, being contrary to the mixed Lydian and like the Ionian, they say it - was invented by Damon the Athenian.
-But as for those sorts of harmony, the one being
-
-
Moreover, the ancients well understood all the sorts - of styles, although they used but few. For it was not their - ignorance that confined them to such narrow instruments - and so few strings; nor was it out of ignorance that Olympus and Terpander and those that came after them would - not admit of larger instruments and more variety of strings. - This is manifest from the poems of Olympus and Terpander and all those that were their imitators. For, being - plain and without any more than three strings, these - so far excelled those that were more numerously strung, - insomuch that none could imitate Olympus's play; and they - were all inferior to him when they betook themselves to - their polychords.
-Then again, that the ancients did not through ignorance abstain from the third string in the spondaic style,
- their use of it in play makes apparent. For had they not
- known the use of it, they would never have struck it in
- harmony with parhypate; but the elegancy and gravity that
- attended the spondaic style by omitting the third string induced them to transfer the music to paranete. The same
- reason may serve for nete; for this in play they struck in
- concord to mese, but in discord to paranete, although in
- song it did not seem to them proper to the slow spondaic
- motion. And not only did they do this, but they did the
- same with nete of the conjunct heptachords; for in play
- they struck it in concord to mese and lichanos, and in discord
- to paranete and parhypate;
The same thing was done also by the tragedians.
- For the tragedians have never to this day used either the
- chromatic or the enharmonic scale; while the lyre, many
- generations older than tragedy, used them from the very
- beginning. Now that the chromatic was more ancient
- than the enharmonic is plain. For we must necessarily
- account it of greater antiquity, according to the custom and
- use of men themselves; otherwise it cannot be said that
-
-
The same may be said of Tyrtaeus the Mantinean,
- Andreas the Corinthian, Thrasyllus the Phliasian, and
- several others, who, as we well know, abstained by choice
- from the chromatic, from transition, from the increased
- number of strings, and many other common forms of
- rhythms, tunes, diction, composition, and expression. Telephanes of Megara was so great an enemy to the pipe made
- of reed (called syrinx), that he would not suffer the instrument maker to join it to the flute (pipe made of wood or
- horn), and chiefly for that reason forbore to go to the Pythian games. In short, if a man should be thought to be
- ignorant of that which he makes no use of, there would
- be found a great number of ignorant persons in this age.
- For we see that the admirers of the Dorian composition
- make no use of the Antiginedian; the followers of the Antiginedian reject the Dorian; and other musicians refuse
- to imitate Timotheus, being almost all bewitched with the
- trifles and the idle poems of Polyidus. On the other
- side, if we dive into the business of variety and compare
- antiquity with the present times, we shall find there
- was great variety then, and that frequently made use of.
- For then the variation of rhythm was more highly esteemed,
- and the change of their manner of play more frequent. We
- are now lovers of fables, they were then lovers of rhythm.
- Plain it is therefore, that the ancients did not refrain from
-
-
Having already shown that Plato neither for want
- of skill nor for ignorance blamed all the other moods and
- casts of composition, we now proceed to show that he
- really was skilled in harmony. For in his discourse concerning the procreation of the soul, inserted into Timaeus,
- he has made known his great knowledge in all the sciences,
- and of music among the rest, in this manner: After
- this,
saith he, he filled up the double and treble intervals,
- taking parts from thence, and adding them to the midst
- between them, so that there were in every interval two middle terms.
- Of the Procreation of the Soul as discoursed in Timaeus, Chap. XXIX. (G.)
Now that there is something of majesty, something
- great and divine in music, Aristotle, who was Plato's
- scholar, thus labors to convince the world: Harmony,
- saith he, descended from heaven, and is of a divine,
- noble, and angelic nature; but being fourfold as to its
- efficacy, it has two means,—the one arithmetical, the
- other enharmonical. As for its members, its dimensions,
- and its excesses of intervals, they are best discovered by
- number and equality of measure, the whole art being contained in two tetrachords.
These are his words. The
- body of it, he saith, consists of discording parts, yet concording one with another; whose means nevertheless
- agree according to arithmetical proportion. For the upper
-
-
But, according to natural philosophy, both harmony
- and its parts consist of even, odd, and also even-odd.
- Altogether it is even, as consisting of four terms; but its
- parts and proportions are even, odd, and even-odd. So
- nete is even, as consisting of twelve units; paramese is
- odd, of nine; mese even, of eight; and hypate even-odd,
-
-
But now as for the senses that are created within - the body, such as are of celestial and heavenly extraction, - and which by divine assistance affect the understanding of - men by means of harmony,—namely, sight and hearing,— - do by the very light and voice express harmony. And others - which are their attendants, so far as they are senses, likewise exist by harmony; for they perform none of their - effects without harmony; and although they are inferior - to the other two, they are not independent of them. Nay, - those two also, since they enter into human bodies at - the very same time with God himself, claim by reason a - vigorous and incomparable nature.
-Manifest from hence therefore it is, why the ancient
- Greeks, with more reason than others, were so careful to
- teach their children music. For they deemed it requisite
- by the assistance of music to form and compose the minds of
- youth to what was decent, sober, and virtuous; believing
- the use of music beneficially efficacious to incite to all serious actions, especially to the adventuring upon warlike
- dangers. To which purpose they made use of pipes or
- flutes when they advanced in battle array against their
- enemies; like the Lacedaemonians, who upon the same occasion caused the Castorean melody to be played before
- their battalions. Others inflamed their courage with
- harps, playing the same sort of harmony when they went
- to look danger in the face, as the Cretans did for a long
- time. Others, even to our own times, continue to use the
- trumpet. The Argives made use of flutes at their wrestling matches called Stheneia; which sort of sport was first
- instituted in honor of Danaus, but afterwards consecrated
- to Jupiter Sthenius, or Jupiter the Mighty. And now at
-
-
But among the more ancient Greeks, music in
- theatres was never known, for they employed their whole
- musical skill in the worship of the Gods and the education of youth; at which time, there being no theatres
- erected, music was yet confined within the walls of
- their temples, as being that with which they worshipped
- the supreme Deity and sang the praises of virtuous men.
- And it is probable that the word to behold) much earlier, were derived from God). But in our age is such another face of new inventions, that there is not the least remembrance or care
- of that use of music which related to education; for
- all our musicians make it their business to court the
- theatre Muses, and study nothing but compositions for the
- stage.
But some will say, Did the ancients invent nothing
- themselves? Yes, say I, they did invent, but their inventions were grave and decent. For they who have written the history of music attribute to Terpander the addition
- of the Dorian nete, which before was not in use. Even
- the whole Mixolydian mood is a new invention. Such were
- also the Orthian manner of melody with Orthian rhythms,
- and also the Trochaeus Semantus.
Of the Hypolydian mood they make Polymnestus the
- inventor, and the first that taught the lowering and raising
- of the voice (
In like manner Menalippides the lyric poet, Philoxenus and Timotheus, all forsook the ancient music. For
- whereas until the time of Terpander the Antissaean the
- harp had only seven strings, hehe refers. Volkmann transfers the
- whole sentence to the end of Chap. XXIX., referring it to Lasus of Hermione. (G.)
-
- Poet.
- Comic. Graec. Fraqm. II. p. 326; and in Didot's edition of the same fragments,
- p. 110. Meineke includes the verses commonly assigned to Aristophanes in the
- extract from Pherecrates. (G.)
Aristophanes the comic poet, making mention of Philoxenus, complains of his introducing lyric verses among
- the cyclic choruses, where he brings in Music thus
- speaking:—
-
-
-
-
-
- Other comedians have since set forth the absurdity of those
- who have been slicers and manglers of music.
Now that the right moulding or ruin of ingenuous - manners and civil conduct lies in a well-grounded musical - education, Aristoxenus has made apparent. For, of those - that were contemporary with him, he gives an account of - Telesias the Theban, who in his youth was bred up in the - noblest excellences of music, and moreover studied the - works of the most famous lyrics, Pindar, Dionysius the - Theban, Lamprus, Pratinas, and all the rest who were accounted most eminent; who played also to perfection upon - the flute, and was not a little industrious to furnish himself - with all those other accomplishments of learning; but being past the prime of his age, he was so bewitched with - the theatre's new fangles and the innovations of multiplied - notes, that despising those noble precepts and that solid - practice to which he had been educated, he betook himself to Philoxenus and Timotheus, and among those - delighted chiefly in such as were most depraved with - diversity of notes and baneful innovation. And yet, when - he made it his business to make verses and labor both - ways as well in that of Pindar as that of Philoxenus, he - could have no success in the latter. And the reason - proceeded from the truth and exactness of his first education.
-Therefore, if it be the aim of any person to practise
- music with skill and judgment, let him imitate the ancient
-
-
First therefore we are to consider that all musical learning is a sort of habituation, which does not teach the - reason of her precepts at one and the same time to the - learner. Moreover, we are to understand that to such an - education there is not requisite an enumeration of its several divisions, but every one learns by chance what either - the master or scholar, according to the authority of the - one and the liberty of the other, has most affection for. - But the more prudent sort reject this chance-medley way - of learning, as the Lacedaemonians of old, the Mantineans, and Pallenians, who, making choice either of one - single method or else but very few styles, used only that - sort of music which they deemed most proper to regulate the inclinations of youths.
-This will be apparent, if any one shall examine
- every one of the parts, and see what is the subject of their
- several contemplations. For harmony takes cognizance
- of intervals, systems, classes of harmonious sounds, notes,
- tones, and systematical transmutations. Farther than this
- it goes not. And therefore it would be in vain to enquire
- of harmony, whether the poet have rightly and (so to speak)
- musically chosen the Dorian for the beginning, the mixed
- Lydian and Dorian for the end, or the Hypophrygian
- and Phrygian for the middle. For the industry of harmony reaches not to these, and it is defective in many other
- things, as not understanding the force and extent of elegant
- aptness and proper concinnity. Neither did ever the chromatic
-
-
[Now then, there being three species into which all
- harmony is divided, equal in the magnitude of systems or
- intervals and force of notes and tetrachords, we find that
- the ancients never disputed about any more than one; for
- they never troubled themselves with the chromatic or diatonic, but differed only about the enharmonic; and there
- no farther than about the great interval called the diapason.
- The further subdivision indeed caused some little variance,
- but they nearly all agreed that harmony itself is but one.
For there are three things at least that at the same - instant strike the ear,—the note, the time, and the word or - syllable. By the note we judge of the harmony, by the - time of the rhythm, and by the word of the matter or subject of the song. As these proceed forth altogether, it is - requisite the sense should give them entrance at the same - moment. But this is certain, where the sense is not able to - separate every one of these and consider the effects of each - apart, there it can never apprehend what is well or what is - amiss in any. First therefore let us discourse concerning - coherence. For it is necessary that coherence accompany - the discerning faculty. For judgment of good or bad is - not to be made from notes disjoined, broken time, and - shattered words, but from coherence. For there is in - practice a certain commixture of parts which commonly - are not compounded. So much as to coherence.
-We are next to consider whether the masters of
- music are sufficiently capable of being judges of it. Now
- I aver the negative. For it is impossible to be a perfect
- musician and a good judge of music by the knowledge of
- those things that seem to be but parts of the whole body, as
- by excellency of hand upon the instrument, or singing
- readily at first sight, or exquisiteness of the ear, so far as
- this extends to the understanding of harmony and time.
- Neither does the knowledge of time and harmony, pulsation or elocution, or whatever else falls under the same
- consideration, perfect their judgment. Now for the reasons
- why a musician cannot gain a perfect judgment from any
- of these, we must endeavor to make them clear. First then
- it must be granted that, of things about which judgment is
- to be made, some are perfect and others imperfect. Those
-
-
The ancients now made principal account of the
- moral impression, and therefore preferred that fashion of
- the antique music which was grave and least affected.
- Therefore the Argives are said to have punished deviation
- from the ancient music, and to have imposed a fine upon
- such as first adventured to play with more than seven strings,
- and to introduce the Mixolydian mood.
But our musicians nowadays have so utterly exploded the most noble of all the moods, which the ancients
- greatly admired for its majesty, that hardly any among them
- make the least account of enharmonic distances. And so
- negligent and lazy are they grown, as to believe the enharmonic
-
-
But these opinions are not only contrary to appearance, but repugnant one to another. For they themselves - chiefly make use of those divisions of tetrachords in which - most of the intervals are either unequal or irrational. To - which purpose they always soften both lichanos and paranete, and lower even some of the standing sounds by an - irrational interval, bringing the trite and paranete to approach them. And especially they applaud the use of - those systems in which most of the intervals are irrational, - by relaxing not only those tones which are by nature movable, but also some which are properly fixed; as it is plain - to those that rightly understand these things.
-Now for the advantages that accrue to men from the
- use of music, the famous Homer has taught it us, introducing
-
-
-
-
- Learn, says Homer, from hence the true use of music.
- For it became Achilles, the son of Peleus the Just, to sing
- the famous acts and achievements of great and valiant men.
- Also, in teaching the most proper time to make use of it, he
- found out a profitable and pleasing pastime for one's leisure
- hours. For Achilles, being both valiant and active, by
- reason of the disgust he had taken against Agamemnon
- withdrew from the war. Homer therefore thought he
- could not do better than by the laudable incitements of music
- and poetry to inflame the hero's courage for those achievements which he afterwards performed. And this he did,
- calling to mind the great actions of former ages. Such
- was then the ancient music, and such the advantages that
- made it profitable. To which end and purpose we read
- that Hercules, Achilles, and many others made use of it;
- whose master, wisest Chiron, is recorded to have taught
- not only music, but morality and physic.
In brief therefore, a rational person will not blame
- the sciences themselves, if any one make use of them amiss,
- but will adjudge such a failing to be the error of those that
- abuse them. So that whoever he be that shall give his
- mind to the study of music in his youth, if he meet with a
- musical education, proper for the forming and regulating
- his inclinations, he will be sure to applaud and embrace
- that which is noble and generous, and to rebuke and blame
- the contrary, as well in other things as in what belongs to
-
-
Now that those cities which were governed by the
- best laws took care always of a generous education in
- music, many testimonies may be produced. But for us it
- shall suffice to have instanced Terpander, who appeased a
- sedition among the Lacedaemonians, and Thaletas the Cretan, of whom Pratinas writes that, being sent for by the
- Lacedaemonians by advice of the oracle, he freed the city
- from a raging pestilence. Homer tells that the Grecians
- stopped the fury of another noisome pestilence by the
- power and charms of the same noble science:—
-
-
-
-
-
- These verses, most excellent master, I thought requisite to
- add as the finishing stone to my musical discourse, which
- were by you cited before
Nor was Soterichus a little admired for what he had
- spoken, as one that both by his countenance and speech
- had shown his zeal and affection for that noble science.
- After all, said Onesicrates, I must needs applaud this in
- both of you, that you have kept within your own spheres
-
-
-
-
- Not that I would have any one believe from these words,
- that Homer thought music useful only for pleasure and
- delight, there being a profounder meaning concealed in the
- verse. For he brought in music to be present at the banquets and revels of the ancients, as believing it then to be
- of greatest use and advantage to repel and mitigate the
- inflaming power of the wine. To which our Aristoxenus
- agrees, who alleges that music was introduced at banquets
- for this reason, that as wine intemperately drunk weakens
- both the body and mind, so music by its harmonious order
- and symmetry assuages and reduces them to their former
- constitution. And therefore it was that Homer reports
- that the ancients made use of music at their solemn festivals.
But for all this, my most honored friends, methinks
- you have forgot the chiefest thing of all, and that which
- renders music most majestic. For Pythagoras, Archytas,
- Plato, and many others of the ancient philosophers, were
- of opinion, that there could be no motion of the world or
- rolling of the spheres without the assistance of music, since
- the Supreme Deity created all things harmoniously. But
-
-
This pointer pattern extracts section.
+ No one will attempt to An elementary explanation of the ordinary scale and of the names of the notes (which are here retained without any attempt at translation) may be of use to the reader. The most ancient scale is said to have had only four notes, corresponding to the four strings of the tetrachord. But before Terpander's time two forms of the heptachord (with seven strings) were already in use. One of these was enlarged to an octachord (with eight strings) by adding the octave (called The note called The other of the two heptachords mentioned above contained the octave, but omitted the This is not to be confounded with the reduced octachord of Terpander. This heptachord includes two tetrachords so united that the lowest note of one is identical with the highest note of the other; while the octachord includes two tetracllords entirely separated, with each note distinct. The former connection is called These simple scales were enlarged by the addition of higher and lower notes, four at the bottom of the scale (i.e. before The harmonic intervals, discovered by Pythagoras, are the
For this reason, upon the second day of the Saturnalian festival, the famous Onesicrates invited certain persons, the best skilled in music, to a banquet; by name Soterichus
Now then, you that are of the grand musical chorus, tell your friends, who was the first that brought music into use; what time has added for the advantage of the science; who have been the most famous of its professors; and lastly, for what and how far it may be beneficial to mankind.
+This the scholar propounded; to which Lysias made reply. Noble Onesicrates, said he, you desire the solution of a hard question, that has been by many already proposed. For of the Platonics the most, of the Peripatetic philosophers the best, have made it their business to compile several treatises concerning the ancient music and the reasons why it came to lose its pristine perfection. Nay, musical compositions of great simplicity and severity, something resembling the most ancient melodies of our church music.
(G.)
Now the measures appointed by these persons, noble Onesicrates, in reference to such songs as are to be sung to the flutes or pipes, were distinguished by these names, —Apothetus, Elegiac, Comarchius, Schoenion, Cepion, Tenedius, and Trimeles (or of three parts).
+To these succeeding ages added another sort, which were called Polymnastia. But the measures set down for those that played and sung to the harp, being the invention of Terpander, were much more ancient than the former. To these he gave the several appellations of Boeotian, Aeolian, Trochaean, the Acute, Cepion, Terpandrian, and Tetraoedian.
Alexander in his Collections of Phrygia says, that Olympus was the first that brought into Greece the manner of touching the strings with a quill; and next to him were the Idaean Dactyli; Hyagnis was the first that sang to the pipe; after him his son Marsyas, then Olympus; that Terpander imitated Homer in his verses and Orpheus in his musical compositions; but that Orpheus never imitated any one, since in his time there were none but such as composed to the pipe, which was a manner quite different from that of Orpheus. Clonas, a composer of nomes for flute-music, and somewhat later than Terpander, as the Arcadians affirm, was born in Tegea or, as the Boeotians allege, at Thebes. After Terpander and Clonas flourished Archilochus; yet there are some writers who affirm, that Ardalus the Troezenian taught the manner of composing to wind-music before Clonas. There was also the poet Polymnestus, the son of Meles the Colophonian, who invented the Polymnestian measures. They farther write that Clonas invented the nomes Apothetus and Schoenion. Of Polymnestus mention is made by Pindar and Alcman, both lyric poets; but of several of the lyric nomes said to be instituted by Terpander they make Philammon (the ancient Delphian) author.
+Now the music appropriated to the harp, such as it was in the time of Terpander, continued in all its simplicity, till Phrynis grew into esteem. For it was not the ancient custom to make lyric poems in the present style, or to intermix measures and rhythms. For in each nome they were careful to observe its own proper pitch; whence came the expression
Having thus discoursed of the several nomes appropriated to the stringed as well as to the wind instruments, we will now speak something in particular concerning those peculiar to the wind instruments. First they say, that Olympus, a Phrygian player upon the flute, invented a certain nome in honor of Apollo, which he called Polycephalus,
There was also another mood in use among the ancients, called Cradias, which Hipponax says Mimnermus always delighted in. For formerly they that played upon the flute sang also elegies at the same time set to notes. Which the description of the Panathenaea concerning the musical combat makes manifest. Among the rest, Sacadas of Argos set several odes and elegies to music, he himself being also a good flute-player and thrice a victor at the Pythian games. Of him Pindar makes mention. Now whereas in the time of Polymnestus and Sacadas there existed three musical moods, the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian, it is said that Sacadas composed a strophe in every one of those moods, and then taught the choruses to sing the first after the Dorian manner, the second according to the Phrygian, and the third after the Lydian manner; and this nome was called Trimeres (or threefold) by reason of the shifting of the moods, although in the Sicyonian catalogue of the poets Clonas is said to be the inventor of this name.
+Music then received its first constitution from Terpander at Sparta. Of the second constitution, Thaletas the Gortinean, Xenodamus the Cytherean, Xenocritus the Locrian, Polymnestus the Colophonian, and Sacadas the Argive were deservedly acknowledged to be the authors. For these, having introduced the Gymnopaediae into Lacedaemon, settled the so-called Apodeixeis (or Exhibitions)
Polymnestus also composed nomes for flute-music; but in the Orthian nome he made use of his lyric vein, as the students in harmony declare. But in this we cannot be positive, because we have nothing of certainty concerning it from antiquity; and whether Thaletas of Crete was a composer of hymns is much doubted. For Glaucus, asserting Thaletas to be born after Archilochus, says that he imitated the odes of Archilochus, only he made them longer, and used the Paeonic and Cretic rhythm, which neither Archilochus nor Orpheus nor Terpander ever did; for Thaletas learned these from Olympus, and became a good poet besides. As for Xenocritus the Locrian from Italy, it is much questioned whether he was a maker of paeans or not, as being one that always took heroic subjects with dramatic action for his verses, for which reason some there were who called his arguments Dithyrambic. More over, Glaucus asserts Thaletas to have preceded him in time.
+Olympus, by the report of Aristoxenus, is supposed by the musicians to have been the inventor of the enharmonic species of music; for before him there was no other than the diatonic and chromatic. And it is thought that the invention of the enharmonic species was thus brought The relations of the enharmonic scale to the ordinary diatonic are thus stated by Westphal (pp. 124–126), The spondee.
It is defined by him (according to Aristides Quintilianus) as the raising of the tone through three dieses (or quartertones). (G.)
These were the beginnings of enharmonic music; afterwards the semitone was also divided, as well in the Phrygian as Lydian moods. But Olympus seems to have advanced music by producing something never known or heard of before, and to have gained to himself the honor of being the most excellent, not only in the Grecian but in all other music.
+Let us now proceed to rhythms; for there were several varieties of these, as well in musical as in rhythmical composition. And here Terpander, among all those novelties with which he adorned music, introduced an elegant manner, that gave it much life. After him, beside the Terpandrian, which he did not relinquish, Polymnestus brought in use another of his own, retaining however the former elegant manner, as did also Thaletas and Sacadas. Other innovations were also made by Alkman and Stesichorus, who nevertheless receded not from the ancient forms. But Crexus, Timotheus, and Philoxenus, and those other poets of the same age, growing more arrogant and studious of novelty, affected those other manners now called Philanthropic and Thematic. For now the fewness of strings and the plainness and majesty of the old music are looked upon as absolutely out of date.
+And now, having discoursed to the best of my ability of the ancient music and the first inventors of it, and how succeeding ages brought it to more and more perfection, I shall make an end, and give way to my friend Soterichus,
Most noble Onesicrates, said he, since you have engaged us to speak our knowledge concerning the most venerable excellencies of music, which is most pleasing to the Gods, I cannot but approve the learning of our master Lysias, and his great memory in reciting all the inventors of the ancient music, and those who have written concerning it. But I must needs say, that he has given us this account, trusting only to what he has found recorded. We on the other side have not heard of any man that was the inventor of the benefits of music, but of the God Apollo, adorned with all manner of virtue. The flute was neither the invention of Marsyas nor Olympus nor Hyagnis; nor was the harp Apollo's invention only, but as a God he was the inventor of all the music both of the flute and harp. This is manifest from the dances and sacrifices which were solemnized to Apollo, as Alcaeus and others in their hymns relate. His statue also placed in the Temple of Delos holds in his right hand a bow; at his left the Graces stand, with every one a musical instrument in her hands, one carrying a harp, another a flute, another with a shepherd's pipe set to her lips. And that this is no conceit of mine appears from this, that Anticles and Ister have testified the same in their commentaries upon these things. And the statue is reported to be so ancient, that the artificers were said to have lived in the time of Hercules. The youth also that carries the Tempic laurel into Delphi is accompanied by one playing upon the flute. And the sacred presents of the Hyperboreans were sent of old to Delos, attended with flutes, pipes, and harps. Some have thought that the God himself played upon the flute, as the best of
The ancients made use of it for its worth, as they did all other beneficial sciences. But our men of art, contemning its ancient majesty, instead of that manly, grave, heaven-born music, so acceptable to the Gods, have brought into the theatres a sort of effeminate musical tattling, mere sound without substance; which Plato utterly rejects in the third book of his commonwealth, refusing the Lydian harmony as fit only for lamentations. And they say that this was first instituted for doleful songs. Aristoxenus, in his first book of music, tells us how that Olympus sang an elegy upon the death of Python in the Lydian mood, though some will have Menalippides to be the author of that song. Pindar, in his paean on the nuptials of Niobe, asserts that the Lydian harmony was first used by Anthippus. Others affirm, that Torebus was the first that made use of that sort of harmony; among the rest, Dionysius the iambic writer.
+The mixed Lydian moves the affections, and is fit for tragedies. This mood, as Aristoxenus alleges, was invented by Sappho, from whom the tragedians learned it and joined it with the Doric. The one becomes a majestic, lofty style, the other mollifies and stirs to pity; both which are the properties of tragedy. The history of music, however, made Pythoclides the flute-player to be the author of it; and Lysis reports that Lamprocles the Athenian, finding that the diazeuxis (or separation of two tetrachords) was not where almost all others thought it had been, but toward the treble, made such a scheme as is now from paramese to the highest hypate. But for the softer Lydian, being contrary to the mixed Lydian and like the Ionian, they say it was invented by Damon the Athenian.
+But as for those sorts of harmony, the one being
Moreover, the ancients well understood all the sorts of styles, although they used but few. For it was not their ignorance that confined them to such narrow instruments and so few strings; nor was it out of ignorance that Olympus and Terpander and those that came after them would not admit of larger instruments and more variety of strings. This is manifest from the poems of Olympus and Terpander and all those that were their imitators. For, being plain and without any more than three strings, these so far excelled those that were more numerously strung, insomuch that none could imitate Olympus's play; and they were all inferior to him when they betook themselves to their polychords.
+Then again, that the ancients did not through ignorance abstain from the third string in the spondaic style, their use of it in play makes apparent. For had they not known the use of it, they would never have struck it in harmony with parhypate; but the elegancy and gravity that attended the spondaic style by omitting the third string induced them to transfer the music to paranete. The same reason may serve for nete; for this in play they struck in concord to mese, but in discord to paranete, although in song it did not seem to them proper to the slow spondaic motion. And not only did they do this, but they did the same with nete of the conjunct heptachords; for in play they struck it in concord to mese and lichanos, and in discord to paranete and parhypate;
The same thing was done also by the tragedians. For the tragedians have never to this day used either the chromatic or the enharmonic scale; while the lyre, many generations older than tragedy, used them from the very beginning. Now that the chromatic was more ancient than the enharmonic is plain. For we must necessarily account it of greater antiquity, according to the custom and use of men themselves; otherwise it cannot be said that
The same may be said of Tyrtaeus the Mantinean, Andreas the Corinthian, Thrasyllus the Phliasian, and several others, who, as we well know, abstained by choice from the chromatic, from transition, from the increased number of strings, and many other common forms of rhythms, tunes, diction, composition, and expression. Telephanes of Megara was so great an enemy to the pipe made of reed (called syrinx), that he would not suffer the instrument maker to join it to the flute (pipe made of wood or horn), and chiefly for that reason forbore to go to the Pythian games. In short, if a man should be thought to be ignorant of that which he makes no use of, there would be found a great number of ignorant persons in this age. For we see that the admirers of the Dorian composition make no use of the Antiginedian; the followers of the Antiginedian reject the Dorian; and other musicians refuse to imitate Timotheus, being almost all bewitched with the trifles and the idle poems of Polyidus. On the other side, if we dive into the business of variety and compare antiquity with the present times, we shall find there was great variety then, and that frequently made use of. For then the variation of rhythm was more highly esteemed, and the change of their manner of play more frequent. We are now lovers of fables, they were then lovers of rhythm. Plain it is therefore, that the ancients did not refrain from
Having already shown that Plato neither for want of skill nor for ignorance blamed all the other moods and casts of composition, we now proceed to show that he really was skilled in harmony. For in his discourse concerning the procreation of the soul, inserted into Timaeus, he has made known his great knowledge in all the sciences, and of music among the rest, in this manner: After this,
saith he, he filled up the double and treble intervals, taking parts from thence, and adding them to the midst between them, so that there were in every interval two middle terms.
Now that there is something of majesty, something great and divine in music, Aristotle, who was Plato's scholar, thus labors to convince the world: Harmony,
saith he, descended from heaven, and is of a divine, noble, and angelic nature; but being fourfold as to its efficacy, it has two means,—the one arithmetical, the other enharmonical. As for its members, its dimensions, and its excesses of intervals, they are best discovered by number and equality of measure, the whole art being contained in two tetrachords.
These are his words. The body of it, he saith, consists of discording parts, yet concording one with another; whose means nevertheless agree according to arithmetical proportion. For the upper
But, according to natural philosophy, both harmony and its parts consist of even, odd, and also even-odd. Altogether it is even, as consisting of four terms; but its parts and proportions are even, odd, and even-odd. So nete is even, as consisting of twelve units; paramese is odd, of nine; mese even, of eight; and hypate even-odd,
But now as for the senses that are created within the body, such as are of celestial and heavenly extraction, and which by divine assistance affect the understanding of men by means of harmony,—namely, sight and hearing,— do by the very light and voice express harmony. And others which are their attendants, so far as they are senses, likewise exist by harmony; for they perform none of their effects without harmony; and although they are inferior to the other two, they are not independent of them. Nay, those two also, since they enter into human bodies at the very same time with God himself, claim by reason a vigorous and incomparable nature.
+Manifest from hence therefore it is, why the ancient Greeks, with more reason than others, were so careful to teach their children music. For they deemed it requisite by the assistance of music to form and compose the minds of youth to what was decent, sober, and virtuous; believing the use of music beneficially efficacious to incite to all serious actions, especially to the adventuring upon warlike dangers. To which purpose they made use of pipes or flutes when they advanced in battle array against their enemies; like the Lacedaemonians, who upon the same occasion caused the Castorean melody to be played before their battalions. Others inflamed their courage with harps, playing the same sort of harmony when they went to look danger in the face, as the Cretans did for a long time. Others, even to our own times, continue to use the trumpet. The Argives made use of flutes at their wrestling matches called Stheneia; which sort of sport was first instituted in honor of Danaus, but afterwards consecrated to Jupiter Sthenius, or Jupiter the Mighty. And now at
But among the more ancient Greeks, music in theatres was never known, for they employed their whole musical skill in the worship of the Gods and the education of youth; at which time, there being no theatres erected, music was yet confined within the walls of their temples, as being that with which they worshipped the supreme Deity and sang the praises of virtuous men. And it is probable that the word
But some will say, Did the ancients invent nothing themselves? Yes, say I, they did invent, but their inventions were grave and decent. For they who have written the history of music attribute to Terpander the addition of the Dorian nete, which before was not in use. Even the whole Mixolydian mood is a new invention. Such were also the Orthian manner of melody with Orthian rhythms, and also the Trochaeus Semantus.
Of the Hypolydian mood they make Polymnestus the inventor, and the first that taught the lowering and raising of the voice (
In like manner Menalippides the lyric poet, Philoxenus and Timotheus, all forsook the ancient music. For whereas until the time of Terpander the Antissaean the harp had only seven strings, he
Aristophanes the comic poet, making mention of Philoxenus, complains of his introducing lyric verses among the cyclic choruses, where he brings in Music thus speaking:—
Other comedians have since set forth the absurdity of those who have been slicers and manglers of music.
Now that the right moulding or ruin of ingenuous manners and civil conduct lies in a well-grounded musical education, Aristoxenus has made apparent. For, of those that were contemporary with him, he gives an account of Telesias the Theban, who in his youth was bred up in the noblest excellences of music, and moreover studied the works of the most famous lyrics, Pindar, Dionysius the Theban, Lamprus, Pratinas, and all the rest who were accounted most eminent; who played also to perfection upon the flute, and was not a little industrious to furnish himself with all those other accomplishments of learning; but being past the prime of his age, he was so bewitched with the theatre's new fangles and the innovations of multiplied notes, that despising those noble precepts and that solid practice to which he had been educated, he betook himself to Philoxenus and Timotheus, and among those delighted chiefly in such as were most depraved with diversity of notes and baneful innovation. And yet, when he made it his business to make verses and labor both ways as well in that of Pindar as that of Philoxenus, he could have no success in the latter. And the reason proceeded from the truth and exactness of his first education.
+Therefore, if it be the aim of any person to practise music with skill and judgment, let him imitate the ancient
First therefore we are to consider that all musical learning is a sort of habituation, which does not teach the reason of her precepts at one and the same time to the learner. Moreover, we are to understand that to such an education there is not requisite an enumeration of its several divisions, but every one learns by chance what either the master or scholar, according to the authority of the one and the liberty of the other, has most affection for. But the more prudent sort reject this chance-medley way of learning, as the Lacedaemonians of old, the Mantineans, and Pallenians, who, making choice either of one single method or else but very few styles, used only that sort of music which they deemed most proper to regulate the inclinations of youths.
+This will be apparent, if any one shall examine every one of the parts, and see what is the subject of their several contemplations. For harmony takes cognizance of intervals, systems, classes of harmonious sounds, notes, tones, and systematical transmutations. Farther than this it goes not. And therefore it would be in vain to enquire of harmony, whether the poet have rightly and (so to speak) musically chosen the Dorian for the beginning, the mixed Lydian and Dorian for the end, or the Hypophrygian and Phrygian for the middle. For the industry of harmony reaches not to these, and it is defective in many other things, as not understanding the force and extent of elegant aptness and proper concinnity. Neither did ever the chromatic
[Now then, there being three species into which all harmony is divided, equal in the magnitude of systems or intervals and force of notes and tetrachords, we find that the ancients never disputed about any more than one; for they never troubled themselves with the chromatic or diatonic, but differed only about the enharmonic; and there no farther than about the great interval called the diapason. The further subdivision indeed caused some little variance, but they nearly all agreed that harmony itself is but one.
For there are three things at least that at the same instant strike the ear,—the note, the time, and the word or syllable. By the note we judge of the harmony, by the time of the rhythm, and by the word of the matter or subject of the song. As these proceed forth altogether, it is requisite the sense should give them entrance at the same moment. But this is certain, where the sense is not able to separate every one of these and consider the effects of each apart, there it can never apprehend what is well or what is amiss in any. First therefore let us discourse concerning coherence. For it is necessary that coherence accompany the discerning faculty. For judgment of good or bad is not to be made from notes disjoined, broken time, and shattered words, but from coherence. For there is in practice a certain commixture of parts which commonly are not compounded. So much as to coherence.
+We are next to consider whether the masters of music are sufficiently capable of being judges of it. Now I aver the negative. For it is impossible to be a perfect musician and a good judge of music by the knowledge of those things that seem to be but parts of the whole body, as by excellency of hand upon the instrument, or singing readily at first sight, or exquisiteness of the ear, so far as this extends to the understanding of harmony and time. Neither does the knowledge of time and harmony, pulsation or elocution, or whatever else falls under the same consideration, perfect their judgment. Now for the reasons why a musician cannot gain a perfect judgment from any of these, we must endeavor to make them clear. First then it must be granted that, of things about which judgment is to be made, some are perfect and others imperfect. Those
The ancients now made principal account of the moral impression, and therefore preferred that fashion of the antique music which was grave and least affected. Therefore the Argives are said to have punished deviation from the ancient music, and to have imposed a fine upon such as first adventured to play with more than seven strings, and to introduce the Mixolydian mood.
But our musicians nowadays have so utterly exploded the most noble of all the moods, which the ancients greatly admired for its majesty, that hardly any among them make the least account of enharmonic distances. And so negligent and lazy are they grown, as to believe the enharmonic
But these opinions are not only contrary to appearance, but repugnant one to another. For they themselves chiefly make use of those divisions of tetrachords in which most of the intervals are either unequal or irrational. To which purpose they always soften both lichanos and paranete, and lower even some of the standing sounds by an irrational interval, bringing the trite and paranete to approach them. And especially they applaud the use of those systems in which most of the intervals are irrational, by relaxing not only those tones which are by nature movable, but also some which are properly fixed; as it is plain to those that rightly understand these things.
+Now for the advantages that accrue to men from the use of music, the famous Homer has taught it us, introducing
Learn, says Homer, from hence the true use of music. For it became Achilles, the son of Peleus the Just, to sing the famous acts and achievements of great and valiant men. Also, in teaching the most proper time to make use of it, he found out a profitable and pleasing pastime for one's leisure hours. For Achilles, being both valiant and active, by reason of the disgust he had taken against Agamemnon withdrew from the war. Homer therefore thought he could not do better than by the laudable incitements of music and poetry to inflame the hero's courage for those achievements which he afterwards performed. And this he did, calling to mind the great actions of former ages. Such was then the ancient music, and such the advantages that made it profitable. To which end and purpose we read that Hercules, Achilles, and many others made use of it; whose master, wisest Chiron, is recorded to have taught not only music, but morality and physic.
In brief therefore, a rational person will not blame the sciences themselves, if any one make use of them amiss, but will adjudge such a failing to be the error of those that abuse them. So that whoever he be that shall give his mind to the study of music in his youth, if he meet with a musical education, proper for the forming and regulating his inclinations, he will be sure to applaud and embrace that which is noble and generous, and to rebuke and blame the contrary, as well in other things as in what belongs to
Now that those cities which were governed by the best laws took care always of a generous education in music, many testimonies may be produced. But for us it shall suffice to have instanced Terpander, who appeased a sedition among the Lacedaemonians, and Thaletas the Cretan, of whom Pratinas writes that, being sent for by the Lacedaemonians by advice of the oracle, he freed the city from a raging pestilence. Homer tells that the Grecians stopped the fury of another noisome pestilence by the power and charms of the same noble science:—
These verses, most excellent master, I thought requisite to add as the finishing stone to my musical discourse, which were by you cited before
Nor was Soterichus a little admired for what he had spoken, as one that both by his countenance and speech had shown his zeal and affection for that noble science. After all, said Onesicrates, I must needs applaud this in both of you, that you have kept within your own spheres
Not that I would have any one believe from these words, that Homer thought music useful only for pleasure and delight, there being a profounder meaning concealed in the verse. For he brought in music to be present at the banquets and revels of the ancients, as believing it then to be of greatest use and advantage to repel and mitigate the inflaming power of the wine. To which our Aristoxenus agrees, who alleges that music was introduced at banquets for this reason, that as wine intemperately drunk weakens both the body and mind, so music by its harmonious order and symmetry assuages and reduces them to their former constitution. And therefore it was that Homer reports that the ancients made use of music at their solemn festivals.
But for all this, my most honored friends, methinks you have forgot the chiefest thing of all, and that which renders music most majestic. For Pythagoras, Archytas, Plato, and many others of the ancient philosophers, were of opinion, that there could be no motion of the world or rolling of the spheres without the assistance of music, since the Supreme Deity created all things harmoniously. But
IT being our determination to discourse of Natural Philosophy, we judge it necessary, in the first place and chiefly,
- to divide the body of philosophy into its proper members,
- that we may know what is that which is called philosophy,
- and what part of it is physical, or the explanation of natural things. The Stoics affirm that wisdom is the knowledge of things human and divine; that philosophy is the
- exercise of that art which is expedient to this knowledge;
- that virtue is the sole and sovereign art which is thus expedient; and this distributes itself into three general parts,
- —natural, moral, and logical. By which just reason (they
- say) philosophy is tripartite; of which one is natural, the
- other moral, the third logical. The natural is when our
- enquiries are concerning the world and all things contained in it; the ethical is the employment of our minds in
- those things which concern the manners of man's life; the
- logical (which they also call dialectical) regulates our conversation with others in speaking. Aristotle, Theophrastus, and after them almost all the Peripatetics give the following division of philosophy. It is absolutely requisite
- that the complete person be contemplator of things which
- have a being, and the practiser of those things which are
- decent; and this easily appears by the following instances.
- If the question be proposed, whether the sun, which is so
- conspicuous to us, be informed with a soul or inanimate,
-
-
SINCE we have undertaken to make a diligent search
- into Nature, I cannot but conclude it necessary to declare
- what Nature is. It is very absurd to attempt a discourse
- of the essence of natural things, and not to understand
- what is the power and sphere of Nature. If Aristotle be
- credited, Nature is the principle of motion and rest, in
- that thing in which it exists principally and not by accident. For all things that are conspicuous to our eyes,
- which are neither fortuitous nor necessary, nor have a
- divine original, nor acknowledge any such like cause, are
- called natural and enjoy their proper nature. Of this sort
- are earth, fire, water, air, plants, animals; to these may be
- added all things produced from them, such as showers,
- hail, thunders, hurricanes, and winds. All these confess
- they had a beginning, none of these were from eternity, but
- had something as the origin of them; and likewise animals
- and plants have a principle whence they are produced.
-
-
THE followers of Aristotle and Plato conclude that the
- elements are discriminated from a principle. Thales the
- Milesian supposeth that a principle and the elements are
- one and the same thing, but it is evident that they vastly
- differ one from another. For the elements are things
- compounded; but we do pronounce that principles admit not of a composition, nor are the effects of any other
- being. Those which we call elements are earth, water,
- air, and fire. But we term those principles which have
- nothing precedent to them out of which they are produced;
- for otherwise not these themselves, but rather those things
- whereof they are produced, would be the principles.
- Now there are some things which have a pre-existence
- to earth and water, from which they are begotten; to wit,
- matter, which is without form or shape; then form, which
- we call actuality); and lastly, privation. Thales
- therefore is very peccant, by affirming that water is both
- an element and a principle.
-
-
THALES the Milesian doth affirm that water is the principle whence all things in the universe spring. This
-
-
-
-
Anaximander, who himself was a Milesian, assigns the - principle of all things to the Infinite, from whence all things - flow, and into the same are corrupted; hence it is that infinite worlds are framed, and those vanish again into that - whence they have their original. And thus he farther - proceeds, For what other reason is there of an Infinite - but this, that there may be nothing deficient as to the generation or subsistence of what is in nature? There is his - error, that he doth not acquaint us what this Infinite is, - whether it be air, or water, or earth, or any other such - like body. Besides he is peccant, in that, giving us the - material cause, he is silent as to the efficient cause of beings; - for this thing which he makes his Infinite can be nothing - but matter; but operation cannot take place in the sphere - of matter, except an efficient cause be annexed.
-Anaximenes his fellow-citizen pronounceth, that air is the
-
-
Anaxagoras the Clazomenian asserted Homoeomeries
- (or parts similar or homogeneous) to be the original cause
- of all beings; it seemed to him impossible that any thing
- could arise of nothing or be resolved into nothing. Let
- us therefore instance in nourishment, which appears simple and uniform, such as bread which we owe to Ceres,
- and water which we drink. Of this very nutriment, our
- hair, our veins, our arteries, nerves, bones, and all our
- other parts are nourished. These things thus being performed, it must be granted that the nourishment which is
- received by us contains all those things by which these
- parts of us are increased. In it there are those particles
- which are producers of blood, bones, nerves, and all other
- parts; which particles (as he thought) reason discovers
- for us. For it is not necessary that we should reduce all
- things under the objects of sense; for bread and water are
- fitted to the senses, yet in them there are those particles
- latent which are discoverable only by reason. It being
- therefore evident that there are particles in the nourishment similar to what is produced thereby, he terms these
- homogeneous parts, averring that they are the principles
-
- All things were confused one among another; but Mind
- divided and reduced them to order.
In this he is to be
- commended, that he yokes together matter and an intellectual agent.
Archelaus the son of Apollodorus, the Athenian, pronounceth, that the principles of all things have their original from an infinite air rarefied or condensed. Air rarefied - is fire, condensed is water.
-These philosophers, the followers of Thales, succeeding - one another, made up that sect which takes to itself the - denomination of the Ionic.
-Pythagoras the Samian, the son of Mnesarchus, from
- another origin deduces the principles of all things; it was
- he who first gave philosophy its name. He assigns the first
- principles to be numbers, and those symmetries resulting
- from them which he styles harmonies; and the result of
- both combined he terms elements, called geometrical.
- Again, he enumerates unity and the indefinite binary number amongst the principles. One of these principles tends
- to an efficient and forming cause, which is Mind, and that
- is God; the other to the passive and material part, and
- that is the visible world. Moreover the nature of number (he saith) consists in the ten; for all people, whether
- Grecians or barbarians, reckon from one to ten, and thence
- return to one again. Farther he avers the virtue of ten
- consists in the quaternion; the reason whereof is this,—
- if any person reckon from one, and by addition place his
- numbers so as to take in the quaternary, he shall complete
- the number ten; if he exceed the four, he shall go beyond
- the ten; for one, two, three, and four being cast up together
- make up ten. The nature of numbers, therefore, if we regard
-
-
-
-
Of this number the soul of man is composed; for mind,
- knowledge, opinion, and sense are the four that complete
- the soul, from which all sciences, all arts, all rational faculties derive themselves. For what our mind perceives, it
- perceives after the manner of a thing that is one, the soul
- itself being a unity; as for instance, a multitude of persons are not the object of our sense nor are comprehended
- by us, for they are infinite; our understanding gives the general notion of a man, in which all individuals agree. The
- number of individuals is infinite; the generic or specific
- nature of all being is a unit, or to be apprehended as one
- only thing; from this one conception we give the genuine
- measures of all existence, and therefore we affirm that a
- certain class of beings are rational and discoursive beings.
- But when we come to give the nature of a horse, it is that
- animal which neighs; and this being common to all horses,
- it is manifest that the understanding, which hath such like
- conceptions, is in its nature unity. The number which
- is called the infinite binary must needs be science; in
- every demonstration or belief belonging to science, and in
- every syllogism, we draw that conclusion which is the
- question doubted of, from those propositions which are by
- all granted, by which means another proposition is demonstrated. The comprehension of these we call knowledge;
- for which reason science is the binary number. But
- opinion is the ternary; for that rationally follows from comprehension. The objects of opinion are many things, and
- the ternary number denotes a multitude, as Thrice happy
- Grecians;
for which reason Pythagoras admits the ternary.
-
-
Heraclitus and Hippasus of Metapontum suppose that - fire gives the origination to all beings, that they all flow - from fire, and in fire they all conclude; for of fire when - first quenched the world was constituted. The first part of - the world, being most condensed and contracted within - itself, made the earth; but part of that earth being loosened and made thin by fire, water was produced; afterwards this water being exhaled and rarefied into vapors - became air; after all this the world itself, and all other - corporeal beings, shall be dissolved by fire in the universal - conflagration. By them therefore it appears that fire is - what gives beginning to all things, and is that in which all - things receive their period.
-Epicurus the son of Neocles, the Athenian, his philosophical sentiments being the same with those of Democritus, affirms that the principles of all being are bodies
- which are perceptible only by reason; they admit not of
- a vacuity, nor of any original, but being of a self-existence
- are eternal and incorruptible; they are not liable to any
- diminution, they are indestructible, nor is it possible for
- them to receive any transformation of parts, or admit of any
- alterations; of these reason only is the discoverer; they
- are in a perpetual motion in vacuity, and by means of the
- empty space; for the vacuum itself is infinite, and the
- bodies that move in it are infinite. Those bodies acknowledge these three accidents, figure, magnitude, and gravity.
- Democritus acknowledged but two, magnitude and figure.
- Epicurus added the third, to wit, gravity; for he pronounced that it is necessary that bodies receive their motion from that impression which springs from gravity,
- otherwise they could not be moved. The figures of atoms
-
-
Empedocles the Agrigentine, the son of Meton, affirms
- that there are four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, and
- two powers which bear the greatest command in nature,
- concord and discord, of which one is the union, the other
- the division of beings. Thus he sings,
-
-
-
By Jupiter he means fire and aether, by Juno that gives - life he means the air, by Pluto the earth, by Nestis and - the fountain of all mortals (as it were) seed and water.
-Socrates the son of Sophroniscus, and Plato son of Ariston, both natives of Athens, entertain the same opinion - concerning the universe; for they suppose three principles, - God, matter, and the idea. God is the universal understanding; matter is that which is the first substratum, accommodated for the generation and corruption of beings; - the idea is an incorporeal essence, existing in the cogitations and apprehensions of God; for God is the soul and - mind of the world.
-Aristotle the son of Nichomachus, the Stagirite, constitutes three principles; Entelecheia (which is the same with
- form), matter, and privation. He acknowledges four elements,
-
-
Zeno son of Mnaseas, the native of Citium, avers these - principles to be God and matter, the first of which is the - efficient cause, the other the passible and receptive. Four - elements he likewise confesses. - -
-THE world being broken and confused, after this manner it was reduced into figure and composure as now it is.
- The insectible bodies or atoms, by a wild and fortuitous motion, without any governing power, incessantly and swiftly
- were hurried one amongst another, many bodies being
- jumbled together; upon this account they have a diversity
- in the figures and magnitude. These therefore being so
- jumbled together, those bodies which were the greatest
- and heaviest sank into the lowest place; they that were
- of a lesser magnitude, being round, smooth, and slippery,
- meeting with those heavier bodies were easily broken into
- pieces, and were carried into higher places. But when that
- force whereby these variously figured particles fought with
- and struck one another, and forced the lighter upwards,
- did cease, and there was no farther power left to drive them
- into superior regions, yet they were wholly hindered from
- descending downwards, and were compelled to reside in
- those places capable to receive them; and these were the
- heavenly spaces, unto which a multitude of these little bodies were whirled, and these being thus shivered fell into
- coherence and mutual embraces, and by this means the
- heaven was produced. Then a various and great multitude
- of atoms enjoying the same nature, as it is before asserted,
-
-
THE Stoics pronounce that the world is one thing, and - this they say is the universe and is corporeal.
-Empedocles's opinion is, that the world is one; yet by no - means the system of this world must be styled the universe, - but that it is a small part of it, and the remainder is idle - matter.
-What to Plato seems the truest he thus declares, that
- there is one world, and that world is the universe; and
- this he endeavors to evince by three arguments. First,
- that the world could not be complete and perfect, if it did
-
-
To Metrodorus it seems absurd, that in a large field one - only stalk should grow, and in an infinite space one only - world exist; and that this universe is infinite is manifest - by this, that there are causes infinite. Now if this world - were finite and the causes which produced it infinite, - it is necessary that the worlds likewise be infinite; for - where all causes do concur, there the effects also must - appear, let the causes be what they will, either atoms or - elements. - -
-THE Stoics thus define the essence of a God. It is a
- spirit intellectual and fiery, which acknowledges no shape,
- but is continually changed into what it pleases, and assimilates itself to all things. The knowledge of this Deity
- they first received from the pulchritude of those things
- which so visibly appeared to us; for they concluded that
- nothing beauteous could casually or fortuitously be formed,
- but that it was framed from the art of a great understanding
-
-
-
-
There are a thousand others that give us the suitable
- reflections of the beauty of the world. Thus Euripides:
-
-
-
From this the knowledge of a God is conveyed to man;
- that the sun, the moon, and the rest of the stars, being carried under the earth, rise again in their proper color, magnitude, place, and times. Therefore they who by tradition
-
-
In the second and third place, they thus distinguished - the Deities into those which are beneficial and those that - are injurious to mankind. Those which are beneficial they - call Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Ceres; those who are mischievous the Dirae, Furies, and Mars. These, which threaten - dangers and violence, men endeavor to appease and conciliate by sacred rites. The fourth and the fifth order of - Gods they assign to things and passions; to passions, Love, - Venus, and Desire; the Deities that preside over things, - Hope, Justice, and Eunomia.
-The sixth order of deities are those made by the poets;
- Hesiod, willing to find out a father for those Gods that
- acknowledge an original, invented their progenitors,
-
-
-
upon which account this is called the fabulous. The - seventh rank of the deities added to the rest are those - which, by their beneficence to mankind, were honored with - a divine worship, though they were born of mortal race; - of this sort were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, and Bacchus. - These are reputed to be of a human species; for of all beings that which is divine is most excellent, and man - amongst all animals is adorned with the greatest beauty, - and is also the best, being distinguished by virtue above - the rest because of his intellect: therefore it was thought - that those who were admirable for goodness should resemble that which is the best and most beautiful. - -
-SOME of the philosophers, such as Diagoras the Melian,
- Theodorus the Cyrenean, and Euemerus the Tegeatan, did
- unanimously deny there were any Gods; and Callimachus
- the Cyrenean discovered his mind touching Euemerus in
- these Iambic verses, thus writing:
-
-
- Panchaean Jove.
See Diodorus, VI. Frag. 2; and
- Bentley's note to Callimachus, Frag. 86. (G.)
meaning books which denote there are no Gods. Euripides the tragedian durst not openly declare his sentiment;
-
-
-
-
Afterwards by the sanction of laws wickedness was suppressed; but by reason that laws could prohibit only public villanies, yet could not hinder many persons from acting
- secret impieties, some wise persons gave this advice, that
- we ought to blind truth with lying disguises, and to persuade men that there is a God:
-
-
-
But this poetical fable ought to be rejected, he thought,
- together with Callimachus, who thus saith:
-
-
-
But God cannot do every thing; for, if it were so, then - God could make snow black, and the fire cold, and him that - is in a posture of sitting to be upright, and so on the contrary. The brave-speaking Plato pronounceth that God - formed the world after his own image; but this smells rank - of the old dotages, old comic poets would say; for how - did God, casting his eye upon himself, frame this universe ? - Or how can God be spherical, and not be inferior to - man?
-Anaxagoras avers that bodies did consist from all eternity, but the divine intellect did reduce them into their
- proper orders, and effected the origination of all beings.
- Plato did not suppose that the primary bodies had their
- consistence and repose, but that they were moved confusedly and in disorder; but God, knowing that order was
-
- A virtuous prince, for warlike acts renowned,
-
and by an adulterer and adulteress was vanquished and - perfidiously slain. Hercules, after he had freed the life - of man from many things that were pernicious to it, perished by the witchcraft and poison of Deianira.
-Thales said that the intelligence of the world was God.
-Anaximander concluded that the stars were heavenly - Deities.
-Democritus said that God, being a globe of fire, is intelligence and the soul of the world.
-Pythagoras says that, of his principles, unity is God; and - the perfect good, which is indeed the nature of a unity, is - mind itself; but the binary number, which is infinite, is a - devil, and in its own nature evil,—about which the multitude of material beings, and this world which is the object - of our eyes, are conversant.
-Socrates and Plato agree that God is that which is one, - hath its original from its own self, is of a singular subsistence, is one only being perfectly good; all these various names signifying goodness do all centre in mind; hence - God is to be understood as that mind and intellect, which - is a separate idea, that is to say, pure and unmixed of all - matter, and not twisted with any thing obnoxious to - passions.
-Aristotle's sentiment is, that God hath his residence in - superior regions, and hath placed his throne in the sphere - of the universe, and is a separate idea; which sphere is an - ethereal body, which is by him styled the fifth essence or - quintessence. For there is a division of the universe into - spheres, which are contiguous by their nature but appear to - reason to be separated; and he concludes that each of the - spheres is an animal, composed of a body and soul; the - body of them is ethereal, moved orbicularly, the soul is - the rational form, which is unmoved, and yet is the cause - that the sphere is actually in motion.
-The Stoics affirm that God is a thing more common and
-
-
In the judgment of Epicurus all the Gods are anthropomorphites, or have the shape of men; but they are perceptible only by reason, for their nature admits of no other - manner of being apprehended, their parts being so small - and fine that they give no corporeal representations. The - same Epicurus asserts that there are four other natural - beings which are immortal: of this sort are atoms, the - vacuum, the infinite, and the similar parts; and these last - are called Homoeomeries and likewise elements. - -
-HAVING treated of the essence of the deities in a just - order, it follows that we discourse of daemons and heroes. - Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics do conclude that - daemons are essences which are endowed with souls; that - the heroes are the souls separated from their bodies, some - are good, some are bad; the good are those whose souls - are good, the evil those whose souls are wicked. All this - is rejected by Epicurus. - -
-MATTER is that first being which is substrate for generation, corruption, and all other alterations.
-The disciples of Thales and Pythagoras, with the Stoics, - are of opinion that matter is changeable, mutable, convertible, and sliding through all things.
-The followers of Democritus aver that the vacuum, the - atom, and the incorporeal substance are the first beings, - and not obnoxious to passions.
-Aristotle and Plato affirm that matter is of that species - which is corporeal, void of any form, species, figure, and - quality, but apt to receive all forms, that she may be the - nurse, the mother, and origin of all other beings. But they - that do say that water, earth, air, and fire are matter do - likewise say that matter cannot be without form, but conclude it is a body; but they that say that individual particles and atoms are matter do say that matter is without - form. - -
-AN idea is a being incorporeal, which has no subsistence - by itself, but gives figure and form unto shapeless matter, - and becomes the cause of its manifestation.
-Socrates and Plato conjecture that these ideas are essences separate from matter, having their existence in the - understanding and fancy of the Deity, that is, of mind.
-Aristotle objected not to forms and ideas; but he doth - not believe them separated from matter, or patterns of - what God has made.
-Those Stoics, that are of the school of Zeno, profess that - ideas are nothing else but the conceptions of our own - mind. - -
-A CAUSE is that by which any thing is produced, or by - which any thing is effected.
-Plato gives this triple division of causes,—the material, - the efficient, and the final cause; the principal cause he - judges to be the efficient, which is the mind and intellect.
-Pythagoras and Aristotle judge the first causes are incorporeal beings, but those that are causes by accident or - participation become corporeal substances; by this means - the world is corporeal.
-The Stoics grant that all causes are corporeal, inasmuch - as they are breath. - -
-A BODY is that being which hath these three dimensions, - breadth, depth, and length ;—or a bulk which makes a sensible resistance;—or whatsoever of its own nature possesseth a place.
-Plato saith that it is neither heavy nor light in its own - nature, when it exists in its own place; but being in the - place where another should be, then it has an inclination - by which it tends to gravity or levity.
-Aristotle saith that, if we simply consider things in their - own nature, the earth only is to be judged heavy, and fire - light; but air and water are sometimes heavy and sometimes light.
-The Stoics think that of the four elements two are light, - fire and air; two ponderous, earth and water; that which - is naturally light doth by its own nature, not by any inclination, recede from its own centre; but that which is - heavy doth by its own nature tend to its centre; for the - centre is not a heavy thing of itself.
-Epicurus thinks that bodies are not to be limited; but
- the first bodies, which are simple bodies, and all those
- composed of them, all acknowledge gravity; that all atoms
-
-
EMPEDOCLES, precedent to the four elements, introduceth - the most minute bodies which resemble elements; but - they did exist before the elements, having similar parts - and orbicular.
-Heraclitus brings in the smallest fragments, and those - indivisible. - -
-A FIGURE is the exterior appearance, the circumscription, and the boundary of a body.
-The Pythagoreans say that the bodies of the four elements are spherical, fire being in the supremest place only - excepted, whose figure is conical. - -
-COLOR is the visible quality of a body.
-The Pythagoreans called color the outward appearance
- of a body. Empedocles, that which is consentaneous to
- the passages of the eye. Plato, that they are fires emitted
- from bodies, which have parts harmonious for the sight.
- Zeno the Stoic, that colors are the first figurations of matter. The Pythagoreans, that colors are of four sorts,
- white and black, red and pale; and they derive the variety
-
-
THE disciples of Thales and Pythagoras grant that all - bodies are passible and divisible unto infinity. Others - hold that atoms and indivisible parts are there fixed, and - admit not of a division into infinity. Aristotle, that all - bodies are potentially but not actually divisible into infinity. - -
-THE ancient philosophers held that the mixture of elements proceeded from the alteration of qualities; but the - disciples of Anaxagoras and Democritus say it is done by - apposition. Empedocles composes the elements of still - smaller bulks, those which are the most minute and may - be termed the elements of elements. Plato assigns three - bodies (but he will not allow these to be elements, nor properly so called), air, fire, and water, which are mutable into - one another; but the earth is mutable into none of these. - -
-ALL the natural philosophers from Thales to Plato rejected a vacuum. Empedocles says that there is nothing
- of a vacuity in nature, nor any thing superabundant. Leucippus,
-
- Pythagoras.
(G.)
PLATO, to define place, calls it that thing which in its - own bosom receives forms and ideas; by which metaphor - he signifies matter, being (as it were) a nurse or receptacle - of beings. Aristotle, that it is the ultimate superficies of - the circumambient body, contiguous to that which it doth - encompass. - -
-THE Stoics and Epicureans make a place, a vacuum, and - a space to differ. A vacuum is that which is void of any - thing that may be called a body; place is that which is possessed by a body; a space that which is partly filled with - a body, as a cask with wine. - -
-IN the sense of Pythagoras, time is that sphere which
- encompasses the world. Plato says that it is a movable
-
-
PLATO says that the heavenly motion is time. Most of the - Stoics affirm that motion itself is time. Most philosophers - think that time had no beginning; Plato, that time had - only an ideal beginning. - -
-PLATO and Pythagoras say that motion is a change and - alteration in matter. Aristotle, that it is the actual operation of that which may be moved. Democritus, that there - is but one sort of motion, and it is that which is vibratory. - Epicurus, that there are two species of motion, one perpendicular, and the other oblique. Herophilus, that one - species of motion is obvious only to reason, the other to - sense. Heraclitus utterly denies that there is any thing of - quiet or repose in nature; for that is the state of the dead; - one sort of motion is eternal, which he assigns to beings - eternal, the other perishable, to those things which are perishable. - -
-PARMENIDES, Melissus, and Zeno deny that there are any
- such things as generation and corruption, for they suppose
- that the universe is unmovable. Empedocles, Epicurus, and
-
-
THALES says that necessity is omnipotent, and that it exerciseth an empire over every thing. Pythagoras, that the - world is invested by necessity. Parmenides and Democritus, that there is nothing in the world but what is necessarily, and that this same necessity is otherwise called fate, - justice, providence, and the architect of the world. - -
-PLATO distinguisheth and refers some things to Providence, others to necessity. Empedocles makes the nature
- of necessity to be that cause which employs principles and
- elements. Democritus makes it to be a resistance, impulse,
- and force of matter. Plato sometimes says that necessity
- is matter; at other times, that it is the habitude or respect
- of the efficient cause towards matter.
-
-
HERACLITUS, who attributes all things to fate, makes necessity to be the same thing with it. Plato admits of a - necessity in the minds and the actions of men, but yet he - introduceth a cause which flows from ourselves. The Stoics, - in this agreeing with Plato, say that necessity is a cause invincible and violent; that fate is the ordered complication - of causes, in which there is an intexture of those things - which proceed from our own determination, so that some - things are to be attributed to fate, others not. - -
-ACCORDING to Heraclitus, the essence of fate is a certain
- reason which penetrates the substance of all being; and
- this is an ethereal body, containing in itself that seminal
- faculty which gives an original to every being in the universe. Plato declares that it is the eternal reason and the
- eternal law of the nature of the universe. Chrysippus,
- that it is a spiritual faculty, which in due order doth manage and rule the universe. Again, in his book styled the
- Definitions, that fate is the reason of the world, or that it
- is that law whereby Providence rules and administers every
- thing that is in the world; or it is that reason by which
- all things past have been, all things present are, and all
- things future will be. The Stoics say that it is a chain of
- causes, that is, it is an order and connection of causes which
- cannot be resisted. Posidonius, that it is a being the third
- in degree from Jupiter; the first of beings is Jupiter, the
- second nature, and the third fate.
-
-
PLATO says, that it is an accidental cause and a casual consequence in things which proceed from the election and - counsel of men. Aristotle, that it is an accidental cause in - those things which are done by an impulse to a certain end; - and this cause is uncertain and unstable: there is a great deal - of difference betwixt that which flows from chance and that - which falls out by Fortune; for that which is fortuitous admits also of chance, and belongs to things practical; but - what is by chance cannot be also by Fortune, for it belongs - to things without action: Fortune, moreover, belongs to rational beings, but chance to rational and irrational beings - alike, and even to inanimate things. Epicurus, that it is - a cause not always consistent, but various as to persons, - times, and manners. Anaxagoras and the Stoics, that it is - that cause which human reason cannot comprehend; for - there are some things which proceed from necessity, some - things from Fate, some from choice and free-will, some - from Fortune, some from chance. - -
-EMPEDOCLES believes that Nature is nothing else but the
- mixture and separation of the elements; for thus he writes
- in the first book of his natural philosophy:
-
-
-
Anaxagoras is of the same opinion, that Nature is coalition - and separation, that is, generation and corruption.
-HAVING finished my dissertation concerning principles - and elements and those things which chiefly appertain to - them, I will turn my pen to discourse of those things - which are produced by them, and will take my beginning - from the world, which contains and encompasseth all - beings.
-PYTHAGORAS was the first philosopher that gave the
- name of
THE Stoics say that the figure of the world is spherical, - others that it is conical, others oval. Epicurus, that the - figure of the world may be globular, or that it may admit - of other shapes. - -
-DEMOCRITUS, Epicurus, and those philosophers who introduced atoms and a vacuum, affirm that the world is not an - animal, nor governed by any wise Providence, but that it is - managed by a nature which is void of reason. All the other - philosophers affirm that the world is informed with a soul, - and governed by reason and Providence. Aristotle is excepted, who is somewhat different; he is of opinion, that - the whole world is not acted by a soul in every part of it, - nor hath it any sensitive, rational, or intellectual faculties, - nor is it guided by reason and Providence in every part of - it; of all which the heavenly bodies are made partakers, - for the circumambient spheres are animated and are living - beings; but those things which are about the earth are - void of those endowments; and though those terrestrial - bodies are of an orderly disposition, yet that is casual and - not primogenial. - -
-PYTHAGORAS [and Plato], with the Stoics, affirm that the
- world was framed by God, and being corporeal is obvious
-
-
ARISTOTLE says that, if the world be nourished, it will - likewise be dissolved; but it requires no aliment, and will - therefore be eternal. Plato, that this very world prepares - for itself a nutriment, by the alteration of those things - which are corruptible in it. Philolaus believes that a destruction happens to the world in two ways; either by - fire falling from heaven, or by the lunary water being - poured down through the whirling of the air; and the - exhalations proceeding from thence are the aliment of - the world. - -
-THE natural philosophers pronounce that the forming of
- this world took its original from the earth, it being its centre, for the centre is the principal part of the globe.
- Pythagoras, from the fire and the fifth element. Empedocles determines, that the first and principal element
- separated from the rest was the ether, then fire, after that
- the earth, which earth being strongly compacted by the
-
-
PARMENIDES believes that there are small coronets alternately twisted one within another, some made up of a thin,
- others of a condensed matter; and there are others between them mixed mutually together of light and of
- darkness, and about them all there is a solid substance,
- which like a firm wall surrounds these coronets. Leucippus and Democritus wrap the world round about, as with
- a garment and membrane. Epicurus says that that which
- bounds some worlds is thin, and that which limits others
- is gross and condensed; and of these worlds some are in
- motion, others are fixed. Plato, that fire takes the first
- place in the world, the second the ether, after that the
- air, under that the water; the last place the earth possesseth: sometimes he puts the ether and the fire in the
- same place. Aristotle gives the first place to the ether, as
-
-
DIOGENES and Anaxagoras affirm that, after the world - was composed and the earth had produced living creatures, - the world out of its own propensity made an inclination - towards the south. Perhaps this may be attributed to a - wise Providence (they say), that thereby some parts of the - world may be habitable, others uninhabitable, according as - the various climates are affected with a rigorous cold, or a - scorching heat, or a just temperament of cold and heat. - Empedocles, that the air yielding to the impetuous force - of the solar rays, the pole received an inclination; whereby the northern parts were exalted and the southern depressed, by which means the whole world received its - inclination. - -
-PYTHAGORAS and his followers say that beyond the world
- there is a vacuum, into which and out of which the world
- hath its respiration. The Stoics, that there is a vacuum
- into which the infinite world by a conflagration shall be
-
-
PYTHAGORAS, Plato, and Aristotle say that the eastern - parts of the world, from whence motion commences, are of - the right, those of the western are of the left-hand of the - world. Empedocles, that those that are of the right-hand - are towards the summer solstice, those of the left towards - the winter solstice. - -
-ANAXIMENES declares that the circumference of heaven - is the limit of the earth's revolution. Empedocles, that - the heaven is a solid substance, and hath the form and - hardness of crystal, it being composed of the air compacted by fire, and that in both hemispheres it invests the - elements of air and fire. Aristotle, that it is formed by - the fifth body, and by the mixture of extreme heat and - cold - -
-THALES, Pythagoras, and the followers of Pythagoras do
- distribute the universal globe of heaven into five circles,
-
-
THALES believes that they are globes of earth set on fire.
- Empedocles, that they are fiery bodies arising from that
- fire which the ether embraced within itself, and did shatter in pieces when the elements were first separated one
- from another. Anaxagoras, that the circumambient ether
- is of a fiery substance, which, by a vehement force in its
- whirling about, did tear stones from the earth, and by its
- own power set them on fire, and establish them as stars
- in the heavens. Diogenes thinks they resemble pumice
- stones, and that they are the breathings of the world; again
- he supposeth that there are some invisible stones, which
- sometimes fall from heaven upon the earth, and are there
- quenched; as it happened at Aegos-potami, where a stony
- star resembling fire did fall. Empedocles, that the fixed
- stars are fastened to the crystal, but the planets are
- loosened. Plato, that the stars for the most part are of a
- fiery nature, but they are made partakers of another element, with which they are mixed after the resemblance of
- glue. Xenophanes, that they are composed of inflamed
-
-
THE Stoics say that the stars are of a circular form, like - the sun, the moon, and the world. Cleanthes, that they - are of a conical figure. Anaximenes, that they are fastened as nails in the crystalline firmament; some others, - that they are fiery plates of gold, resembling pictures. - -
-XENOCRATES says that the stars are moved in one and
- the same superficies. The other Stoics say that they are
- moved in various superficies, some being superior, others
- inferior. Democritus, that the fixed stars are in the highest place; after those the planets; after which the sun,
- Venus, and the moon, in their order. Plato, that the first
- after the fixed stars that makes its appearance is Phaenon,
- the star of Saturn; the second Phaëton, the star of Jupiter; the third the fiery, which is the star of Mars; the
- fourth the morning star, which is the star of Venus;
-
-
ANAXAGORAS, Democritus, and Cleanthes say that all the - stars have their motion from east to west. Alcmaeon - and the mathematicians, that the planets have a contrary - motion to the fixed stars, and in opposition to them are - carried from the west to the east. Anaximander, that - they are moved by those circles and spheres on which they - are placed. Anaximenes, that they are turned under and - about the earth. Plato and the mathematicians, that the - sun, Venus, and Mercury have equal measures in their - motions. - -
-METRODORUS says that all the fixed stars derive their light
- from the sun. Heraclitus and the Stoics, that earthly
- exhalations are those by which the stars are nourished.
- Aristotle, that the heavenly bodies require no nutriment,
- for they being eternal cannot be obnoxious to corruption.
- Plato and the Stoics, that the whole world and the stars
- are fed by the same things.
-
-
XENOPHANES says that those which appear as stars in - the tops of ships are little clouds shining by their peculiar motion. Metrodorus, that the eyes of frighted and - astonished people emit those lights which are called the - Twins. - -
-PLATO says that the summer and winter indications proceed from the rising and setting of the stars, that is, from
- the rising and setting of the sun, the moon, and the fixed
- stars. Anaximenes, that the others in this are not at all
- concerned, but that it is wholly performed by the sun.
- Eudoxus and Aratus assign it in common to all the stars,
- for thus Aratus sings:
-
-
-
ANAXIMANDER says, that the sun is a circle eight and
- twenty times bigger than the earth, and has a circumference which very much resembles that of a chariot-wheel,
- which is hollow and full of fire; the fire of which appears
- to us through its mouth, as by a hole in a pipe; and this
- is the sun. Xenophanes, that the sun is constituted of
- small bodies of fire compact together and raised from a
-
-
ANAXIMANDER says, that the sun itself in greatness is
- equal to the earth, but that the circle from whence it
-
-
ANAXIMENES affirms that in its dilatation it resembles a - leaf. Heraclitus, that it hath the shape of a boat, and is - somewhat crooked. The Stoics, that it is spherical, and it - is of the same figure with the world and the stars. Epicurus, that the recited dogmas may be defended. - -
-ANAXIMENES thinks that the stars are forced by a condensed and resisting air. Anaxagoras, by the repelling
- force of the northern air, which is violently pushed on by
- the sun, and thus rendered more condensed and powerful.
- Empedocles, that the sun is hindered from a continual direct course by its spherical vehicle and by the two circular
- tropics. Diogenes, that the sun, when it comes to its utmost
- declination, is extinguished, a rigorous cold damping the
- heat. The Stoics, that the sun maintains its course only
- through that space in which its aliment is seated, let it be
- the ocean or the earth; by the exhalations proceeding from
- these it is nourished. Plato, Pythagoras, and Aristotle, that
-
-
THALES was the first who affirmed that the eclipse of the
- sun was caused by the moon's running in a perpendicular
- line between it and the earth; for the moon in its own nature is terrestrial. And by mirrors it is made perspicuous
- that, when the sun is eclipsed, the moon is in a direct line
- below it. Anaximander, that the sun is eclipsed when the
- fiery mouth of it is stopped and hindered from expiration.
- Heraclitus, that it is after the manner of the turning of a
- boat, when the concave appears uppermost to our sight,
- and the convex nethermost. Xenophanes, that the sun is
- eclipsed when it is extinguished; and that a new sun is
- created to rise in the east. He gives a farther account of
- an eclipse-of the sun which remained for a whole month,
- and again of a total eclipse which changed the day into
- night. Some say that the cause of an eclipse is the invisible concourse of condensed clouds which cover the orb of
- the sun. Aristarchus placeth the sun amongst the fixed
- stars, and believeth that the earth [the moon?] is moved
- about the sun, and that by its inclination and vergency it
- intercepts its light and shadows its orb. Xenophanes, that
- there are many suns and many moons, according as the
- earth is distinguished by climates, circles, and zones. At
- some certain times the orb of the sun, falling upon some
- part of the world which is uninhabited, wanders in a
- vacuum and becomes eclipsed. The same person affirms
- that the sun, proceeding in its motion in the infinite space,
- appears to us to move orbicularly, receiving that representation from its infinite distance from us.
-
-
ANAXIMANDER affirms that the circle of the moon is nineteen times bigger than the earth, and resembles the sun, its - orb being full of fire; and it suffers an eclipse when the - wheel turneth,—which he describes by the divers turnings - of a chariot-wheel, in the midst of it there being a hollow - replenished with fire, which hath but one way of expiration. Xenophanes, that it is a condensed cloud. The - Stoics, that it is mixed of fire and air. Plato, that it is - a body of the greatest part earthy. Anaxagoras and - Democritus, that it is a solid, condensed, and fiery body, in - which there are champaign countries, mountains, and valleys. Heraclitus, that it is an earth covered with a cloud. - Pythagoras, that the body of the moon was of a nature - like a mirror. - -
-THE Stoics declare, that in magnitude it exceeds the - earth, as the sun itself doth. Parmenides, that it is equal - to the sun, from whom it receives its light. - -
-THE Stoics believe that it is of the same figure with the - sun, spherical. Empedocles, that the figure of it resembles - a quoit. Heraclitus, a boat. Others, a cylinder. - -
-ANAXIMANDER thinks that she gives light to herself, but
-
-
ANAXIMENES believes that the mouth of the hollow wheel,
- about which the moon is turned, being stopped is the cause
- of, an eclipse. Berosus, that it proceeds from the turning
- of the dark side of the lunar orb towards us. Heraclitus,
- that it is performed just after the manner of a boat turned
- upside downwards. Some of the Pythagoreans say, that
- the splendor arises from the earth, its obstruction from the
- Antichthon (or counter-earth). Some of the later philosophers, that there is such a distribution of the lunar flame,
- that it gradually and in a just order burns until it be full
- moon; in like manner, that this fire decays by degrees,
- until its conjunction with the sun totally extinguisheth it.
- Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and all the mathematicians
- agree in this, that the obscurity with which the moon is
- every month affected ariseth from a conjunction with the
- sun, by whose more resplendent beams she is darkened;
- and the moon is then eclipsed when she falls upon the
- shadow of the earth, the earth interposing between the sun
-
-
THE Pythagoreans say, that the moon appears to us terraneous, by reason it is inhabited as our earth is, and in it - there are animals of a larger size and plants of a rarer - beauty than our globe affords; that the animals in their - virtue and energy are fifteen degrees superior to ours; - that they emit nothing excrementitious; and that the days - are fifteen times longer. Anaxagoras, that the reason of - the inequality ariseth from the commixture of things earthy - and cold; and that fiery and caliginous matter is jumbled - together, whereby the moon is said to be a star of a counterfeit aspect. The Stoics, that by reason of the diversity - of her substance the composition of her body is subject - to corruption. - -
-EMPEDOCLES affirms, that the distance of the moon from - the sun is double her remoteness from the earth. The - mathematicians, that her distance from the sun is eighteen - times her distance from the earth. Eratosthenes, that the - sun is remote from the earth seven hundred and eighty - thousand furlongs. - -
-THE year of Saturn is completed when he has had his
- circulation in the space of thirty solar years; of Jupiter
-
-
IN my two precedent treatises having in due order taken - a compendious view and given an account of the celestial - bodies, and of the moon which divides between them and - the terrestrial, I must now convert my pen to discourse in - this third book of Meteors, which are beings above the - earth and below the moon, and are extended to the site - and position of the earth, which is supposed to be the - centre of the sphere of this world; and from thence will - I take my beginning.
-IT is a cloudy circle, which continually appears in the
- air, and by reason of the whiteness of its colors is called
- the galaxy, or the milky way. Some of the Pythagoreans say that, when Phaëton set the world on fire, a star
- falling from its own place in its circular passage through
- the region caused an inflammation. Others say that originally it was the first course of the sun; others, that it is an
-
-
SOME of the Pythagoreans say, that a comet is one of
- those stars which do not always appear, but after they
- have run through their determined course, they then rise
- and are visible to us. Others, that it is the reflection of our
- sight upon the sun, which gives the resemblance of comets
- much after the same manner as images are reflected in mirrors. Anaxagoras and Democritus, that two or more stars
- being in conjunction by their united light make a comet.
- Aristotle, that it is a fiery coalition of dry exhalations.
- Strato, that it is the light of the star darting through a
- thick cloud that hath invested it; this is seen in light
- shining through lanterns. Heraclides, native of Pontus,
-
-
ANAXIMANDER affirms that all these are produced by the
- wind after this manner: the wind being enclosed by condensed clouds, by reason of its minuteness and lightness it
- violently endeavors to make its passage; and in breaking
- through the cloud it gives the noise; and the rending the
- cloud, because of the blackness of it, gives a resplendent
- flame. Metrodorus, that when the wind falls upon a cloud
- whose densing firmly compacts it, by breaking the cloud it
- causeth a great noise, and by striking and rending the cloud
- it gives the flame; and in the swiftness of its motion, the
- sun imparting heat to it, it throws out the thunderbolt. The
- weak declining of the thunderbolt ends in a violent tempest.
-
-
ANAXIMENES thinks that by the air being very much condensed clouds are formed; this air being more compacted, - rain is compressed through it; when water in its falling - down freezeth, then snow is generated; when it is encompassed with a moist air, it is hail. Metrodorus, that a cloud - is composed of a watery exhalation carried into a higher - place. Epicurus, that they are made of vapors; and that - hail and rain are formed in a round figure, being in their - long descent pressed upon by the circumambient air. - -
-THOSE things which affect the air in the superior places
- of it are of two sorts. Some have a real subsistence, such
-
-
Plato says, that men admiring it feigned that it took
- origination from one Thaumas, which word signifies admiration. Homer says:
-
-
-
Others therefore fabled that the bow hath a head like a - bull, by which it swallows up rivers.
-But what is the cause of the rainbow? It is evident that
- what apparent things we see come to our eyes in right or
- in crooked lines, or by reflection: these last are incorporeal
- and to sense obscure, but to reason they are obvious. Those
- which are seen in right lines are those which we see through
- the air or horn or transparent stones, for all the parts of
- these things are very fine and tenuious; but those which
- appear in crooked lines are in water, the thickness of
- the water presenting them bended to our sight. This is the
- reason that oars in themselves straight, when put into the
- sea, appear to us crooked. The third manner of our seeing is by reflection, and this is perspicuous by mirrors.
- After this third sort the rainbow is affected. We conceive
- it is a moist exhalation converted into a cloud, and in a
- short space it is dissolved into small and moist drops.
- The sun declining towards the west, it will necessarily follow that the whole bow is seen opposite to the sun; for
- the eye being directed to those drops receives a reflection,
- and by this means the bow is formed. The eye doth not
- consider the figure and form, but the color of these drops;
- the first of which colors is a shining red, the second a
- purple, the third is blue and green. Let us consider
- whether the reason of this shining red color be the splendor
-
-
Anaximenes thinks the bow is thus formed; the sun - casting its splendor upon a thick, black, and gross cloud, - and the rays not being in a capacity to penetrate beyond - the superficies. Anaxagoras, that, the solar rays being reflected from a condensed cloud, the sun being placed directly opposite to it forms the bow after the mode of the - repercussion of a mirror; after the same manner he assigns the natural cause of the Parhelia or mock-suns, which - are often seen in Pontus. Metrodorus, that when the sun - casts its splendor through a cloud, the cloud gives itself a - blue, and the light a red color. - -
-THESE rods and the mock-suns are constituted of a double nature, a real subsistence, and a mere appearance;—
- of a real subsistence, because the clouds are the object of
- our eyes; of a mere appearance, for their proper color is
- not seen, but that which is adventitious. The like affections, natural and. adventitious, in all such things do
- happen.
-
-
ANAXIMANDER believes that wind is a fluid air, the sun - putting into motion or melting the moist subtle parts of it. - The Stoics, that all winds are a flowing air, and from the - diversity of the regions whence they have their origin receive their denomination; as, from darkness and the west - the western wind ; from the sun and its rising the eastern; - from the north the northern, and from the south the southern winds. Metrodorus, that moist vapors heated by the - sun are the cause of the impetuousness of violent winds. - The Etesian, or those winds which annually commence - about the rising of the Little Dog, the air about the northern pole being more compacted, blow vehemently following - the sun when he returns from the summer solstice. - -
-EMPEDOCLES and the Stoics believe that winter is caused - by the thickness of the air prevailing and mounting upwards; and summer by fire, it falling downwards.
-This description being given by me of Meteors, or - those things that are above us, I must pass to those things - which are terrestrial. - -
-THALES and his followers say that there is but one earth.
- Hicetes the Pythagorean, that there are two earths, this
-
-
THALES, the Stoics, and their followers say that the earth - is globular. Anaximander, that it resembles a smooth - stony pillar. Anaximenes, that it hath the shape of a - table. Leucippus, of a drum. Democritus, that it is like - a quoit in its surface, and hollow in the middle. - -
-THE disciples of Thales say that the earth is the centre of the universe. Xenophanes, that it is first, being - rooted in the infinite space. Philolaus the Pythagorean - gives to fire the middle place, and this is the hearth-fire of - the universe; the second place to the Antichthon; the third - to that earth which we inhabit, which is seated in opposition unto and whirled about the opposite,—which is the - reason that those which inhabit that earth cannot be seen - by us. Parmenides was the first that confined the habitable world to the two solstitial (or temperate) zones. - -
-LEUCIPPUS affirms that the earth vergeth towards the
- southern parts, by reason of the thinness and fineness that
-
-
MOST of the philosophers say that the earth remains - fixed in the same place. Philolaus the Pythagorean, that - it is moved about the element of fire, in an oblique circle, - after the same manner of motion that the sun and moon - have. Heraclides of Pontus and Ecphantus the Pythagorean - assign a motion to the earth, but not progressive, but after - the manner of a wheel being carried on its own axis ; thus - the earth (they say) turns itself upon its own centre from - west to east. Democritus, that when the earth was first - formed it had a motion, the parts of it being small and - light; but in process of time the parts of it were condensed, - so that by its own weight it was poised and fixed. - -
-PYTHAGORAS says that, as the celestial sphere is distributed into five zones, into the same number is the
- terrestrial; which zones are the arctic and antarctic,
- the summer and winter tropics (or temperate zones), and
-
-
THALES and Democritus assign the cause of earthquakes
- to water. The Stoics say that it is a moist vapor contained
- in the earth, making an irruption into the air, that makes
- the earthquake. Anaximenes, that the dryness and rarety
- of the earth are the cause of earthquakes, the one of
- which is produced by extreme drought, the other by immoderate showers. Anaxagoras, that the air endeavoring
- to make a passage out of the earth, meeting with a thick
- superficies, is not able to force its way, and so shakes the
- circumambient earth with a trembling. Aristotle, that
- a cold vapor encompassing every part of the earth prohibits
- the evacuation of vapors; for those which are hot, being
- in themselves light, endeavor to force a passage upwards,
- by which means the dry exhalations, being left in the
- earth, use their utmost endeavor to make a passage out,
- and being wedged in, they suffer various circumvolutions
- and shake the earth. Metrodorus, that whatsoever is in its
- own place is incapable of notion, except it be pressed
- upon or drawn by the operation of another body; the
- earth being so seated cannot naturally be removed, yet
- divers parts and places of the earth may move one upon
- another. Parmenides and Democritus, that the earth
- being so equally poised hath no sufficient cause why it
- should incline rather to one side than to the other; so
- that it may be shaken, but cannot be removed. Anaximenes, that the earth by reason of its latitude is borne
-
-
ANAXIMANDER affirms that the sea is the remainder of the
- primogenial humidity, the greatest part of which being
- dried up by the fire, the influence of the great heat altered
- its quality. Anaxagoras, that in the beginning water
- did not flow, but was as a standing pool; and that it was
- burnt by the motion of the sun about it, by which the oily
- part of the water being exhaled, the residue became salt
- and bitter. Empedocles, that the sea is the sweat of the
- earth burnt by the sun. Antiphon, that the sweat of that
- which was hot was separated from the other parts which
- were moist; these by seething and boiling became bitter,
- as happens in all sweats. Metrodorus, that the sea was
- strained through the earth, and retained some part of the
-
-
ARISTOTLE and Heraclides say, they proceed from the
- sun, which moves and whirls about the winds; and these
- falling with a violence upon the Atlantic, it is pressed and
- swells by them, by which means the sea flows; and their
- impression ceasing, the sea retracts, hence they ebb.
- Pytheas the Massilian, that the fulness of the moon gives the
- flow, the wane the ebb. Plato attributes it all to a certain
- oscillation of the sea, which by means of a mouth or orifice
- causes the alternate ebb and flow; and by this means the
- seas do rise and flow contrarily. Timaeus believes that
- those rivers which fall from the mountains of the Celtic
- Gaul into the Atlantic produce a tide. For upon their entering upon that sea, they violently press upon it, and so
- cause the flow; but they disemboguing themselves, there
- is a cessation of the impetuousness, by which means the
- ebb is produced. Seleucus the mathematician attributes a
- motion to the earth; and thus he pronounceth that the
- moon in its circumlation meets and repels the earth in its
- motion; between these two, the earth and the moon, there
- is a vehement wind raised and intercepted, which rushes
- upon the Atlantic Ocean, and gives us a probable argument
- that it is the cause the sea is troubled and moved.
-
-
THE halo or circle is thus formed. A thick and dark air
- intervening between the moon or any other star and our
- eye, by which means our sight is dilated and reflected.
- when now our sight is incident upon the outward circumference of the orb of that star, there presently seems a
- circle to appear. This circle thus appearing is called the
- halo; and there is constantly such a circle seen by
- us, when such a density of sight happens.
HAVING taken a survey of the general parts of the world, - I will take a view of the particular members of it.
-THALES conjectures that the Etesian or anniversary northern winds blowing strongly against Egypt heighten the
- swelling of the Nile, the mouth of that river being obstructed by the force of the sea rushing into it. Euthymenes the Massilian concludes that the Nile is filled by the
- ocean and that sea which is outward from it, this being
- naturally sweet. Anaxagoras, that the snow in Ethiopia
- which is frozen in winter is melted in summer, and this
- makes the inundation. Democritus, that the snows which
- are in the northern climates when the sun enters the summer solstice are dissolved and diffused; from those vapors
- clouds are compacted, and these are forcibly driven by the
-
-
THALES first pronounced that the soul is that being which
- is in a perpetual motion, or that whose motion proceeds
- from itself. Pythagoras, that it is a number moving itself;
- he takes a number to be the same thing with a mind.
- Plato, that it is an intellectual substance moving itself, and
- that motion is in a numerical harmony. Aristotle, that it
- is the first actuality (
ALL those that have been named by me do affirm that - the soul itself is incorporeal, and by its own nature is in a - perpetual motion, and in its own essence is an intelligent - substance, and the actuality of a natural organical body - which has life. The followers of Anaxagoras, that it is - airy and a body. The Stoics, that it is a hot breath. Democritus, that it is a fiery composition of things which are - perceptible by reason, the same having their forms spherical - and without an inflaming faculty; and it is a body. Epicurus, that it is constituted of four qualities, of a fiery - quality, of an aerial quality, a pneumatical, and of a fourth - quality which hath no name, but it contains the virtue of - the sense. Heraclitus, that the soul of the world is the - exhalation which proceeds from the moist parts of it; but - the soul of animals, arising from exhalations that are exterior and from those that are within them, is homogeneous - to it. - -
-PLATO and Pythagoras, according to their former account
- distribute the soul into two parts, the rational and irrational. By a more accurate and strict account the soul is
- branched into three parts; they divide the unreasonable
- part into the concupiscible and the irascible. The Stoics
- say the soul is constituted of eight parts; five of which
- are the senses, hearing, seeing, tasting, touching, smelling,
- the sixth is the faculty of speaking, the seventh of generating, the eighth of commanding; this is the principal of all,
- by which all the other are guided and ordered in their
-
-
PLATO and Democritus place its residence in the whole - head. Strato, in that part of the forehead where the eyebrows are separated. Erasistratus, in the Epikranis, or membrane which involves the brain. Herophilus, in that sinus - of the brain which is the basis of it. Parmenides, in the - whole breast; which opinion is embraced by Epicurus. - The Stoics are generally of this opinion, that the seat of - the soul is throughout the heart, or in the spirit which is - about it. Diogenes, in the arterial ventricle of the heart, - which is also filled with vital spirit. Empedocles, in the - mass of the blood. There are that say it is in the neck - of the heart, others in the pericardium, others in the midriff. Certain of the Neoterics, that the seat of the soul is - extended from the head to the diaphragm. Pythagoras, - that the animal part of the soul resides in the heart, the - intellectual in the head. - -
-PLATO believes that the soul is in perpetual motion, but
- that the mind is immovable with respect to motion from
-
-
PLATO and Pythagoras say that the soul is immortal; - when it departs out of the body, it retreats to the soul of - the world, which is a being of the same nature with it. - The Stoics, when the souls leave the bodies, they are carried to divers places; the souls of the unlearned and - ignorant descend to the coagmentation of earthly things, - but the learned and vigorous endure till the general fire. - Epicurus and Democritus, the soul is mortal, and it perisheth with the body. Plato and Pythagoras, that part of - the soul of man which is rational is eternal; for though - it be not God, yet it is the product of an eternal Deity; - but that part of the soul which is divested of reason dies. - -
-THE Stoics give this definition of sense: Sense is the
- apprehension or comprehension of an object by means of
- an organ. There are several ways of expressing what
- sense is; it is either a habit, a faculty, an operation, or
- an imagination which apprehends by means of an organ
- of sense,—and also the eighth principal thing, from
- whence the senses are derived. The instruments of sense
- are intelligent spirits, which from the said commanding
- part reach unto all the organs of the body. Epicurus,
-
-
THE Stoics say that what the senses represent is true; - what the imagination, is partly false, partly true. Epicurus, that every impression which either the sense or - fancy gives us is true, but of those things that fall - under the account of opinion, some are true, some false: - sense gives us a false representation of those things only - which are the objects of our understanding; but the fancy - gives us a double error, both of things sensible and things - intellectual. Empedocles and Heraclides, that the senses - perceive by a just accommodation of the pores in every - case; every thing that is perceived by the sense being congruously adapted to its proper organ. - -
-THE Stoics say that there are five senses properly so
- called, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching.
-
-
THE Stoics affirm that every man, as soon as he is born,
- has the principal and commanding part of his soul, which
- is in him like a sheet of writing-paper, to which he commits all his notions. The first manner of his inscribing is
- by denoting those notions which flow from the senses.
- Suppose it be of a thing that is white; when the present
- sense of it is vanished, there is yet retained the remembrance; when many memorative notions of the same similitude do concur, then he is said to have an experience;
- for experience is nothing else but the abundance of
- notions that are of the same form met together. Some
- of these notions are naturally begotten according to the
- aforesaid manner, without the assistance of art; the others
- are produced by discipline, learning, and industry; these
- only are properly called notions, the others are prenotions. But reason, which gives us the denomination of
- rational, is completed by prenotions in the first seven
- years. The conception of the mind is the vision that the
- intelligence of a rational animal hath received; when that
- vision falls upon the rational soul, then it is called the
- conception of the mind, for it hath derived its name from
-
-
CHRYSIPPUS affirms, these four are different one from - another. Imagination (he says) is that passion raised in - the soul which discovers itself and that which was the - efficient of it; for example, after the eye hath looked upon - a thing that is white, the sight of which produceth in the - mind a certain impression, this gives us reason to conclude - that the object of this impression is white, which affecteth - us. So is it with touching and smelling.
-Phantasy or imagination is denominated from
-
-
These rave as frantic persons, they see nothing, and yet
- imagine they see. Thence Electra thus returns to him:
-
-
-
After the same manner Theoclymenus in Homer. - -
-DEMOCRITUS and Epicurus suppose that sight is caused
- by the insinuation of little images into the visive organ,
- and by the entrance of certain rays which return to the eye
- after striking upon the object. Empedocles supposes that
- images are mixed with the rays of the eye; these he styles
- the rays of images. Hipparchus, that the visual rays extend from both the eyes to the superficies of bodies, and give
- to the sight the apprehension of those same bodies, after
- the same manner in which the hand touching the extremity of bodies gives the sense of feeling. Plato, that the
- sight is the splendor of united rays; there is a light which
- reaches some distance from the eyes into a congruous air,
- and there is likewise a light emitted from bodies, which
- meets and is joined with the fiery visual light in the intermediate air (which is liquid and mutable); and the conjunction of these rays gives the sense of seeing. This is
- Plato's corradiancy, or splendor of united rays.
-
-
EMPEDOCLES says that these images are caused by certain - effluvias which, meeting together and insisting upon the - superficies of the mirror, are perfected by that fiery quality - emitted by the said mirror, which transmutes withal the air - that surrounds it. Democritus and Epicurus, that the - specular appearances are formed by the subsistence of the - images which flow from our eyes; these fall upon the mirror and remain, while the light rebounds to the eye. The - followers of Pythagoras explain it by the reflection of - the sight; for our sight being extended (as it were) to the - brass, and meeting with the smooth dense surface thereof - it is struck back, and caused to return upon itself: the - same appears in the hand, when it is stretched out and - then brought back again to the shoulder. Any one - may apply these instances to explain the manner of seeing. - -
-THE Stoics say that darkness is seen by us, for out of our
- eyes there issues out some light into it; and our eyes do
- not impose upon us, for they really perceive there is darkness. Chrysippus says that we see darkness by the striking of the intermediate air; for the visual spirits which
- proceed from the principal part of the soul and reach to
- the ball of the eye pierce this air, which, after they have
- made those strokes upon it, presses conically on the surrounding air, where this is homogeneous. For from the
- eyes those rays are poured forth which are neither black
- nor cloudy. Upon this account darkness is visible to us.
-
-
EMPEDOCLES says that hearing is formed by the insidency - of the air upon the spiral, which it is said hangs within - the ear as a bell, and is beat upon by the air. Alcmaeon, - that the vacuity that is within the ear makes us to have - the sense of hearing, for the air forcing a vacuum gives the - sound; every inanity affords a ringing. Diogenes, the air - which is in the head, being struck upon by the voice, gives - the hearing. Plato and his followers, the air which exists - in the head being struck upon, is reflected to the principal - part of the soul, and this causeth the sense of hearing. - -
-ALCMAEON believes that the principal part of the soul, - residing in the brain, draws to itself odors by respiration. - Empedocles, that scents insert themselves into the breathing of the lungs; for, when there is a great difficulty in - breathing, odors are not perceived by reason of the sharpness; and this we experience in those who have the defluxion of rheum. - -
-ALCMAEON says that a moist warmth in the tongue, joined
- with the softness of it, gives the difference of taste. Diogenes, that by the softness and sponginess of the tongue,
- and because the veins of the body are joined in it, tastes
-
-
PLATO thus defines a voice,—that it is a breath drawn
- by the mind through the mouth, and a blow given to the
- air and through the ear, brain, and blood transmitted to
- the soul. Voice is abusively attributed to irrational and
- inanimate beings; thus we improperly call the neighing
- of horses or any other sound by the name of voice. But
- properly a voice (
Democritus, that the air is broken into bodies of similar
- configuration, and these are rolled up and down with the
- fragments of the voice; as it is proverbially said, One
- daw lights with another, or, God always brings like to like.
- Thus we see upon the shore, that stones like to one another
- are found in the same place, in one place the long-shaped,
- in another the round are seen. So in sieves, things that are
- of the same form meet together, but those that are different are divided; as pulse and beans falling from the same
- sieve are separated one from another. To this it may be
- objected: How can some fragments of air fill a theatre in
-
-
PYTHAGORAS, Plato, and Aristotle say that the voice is
- incorporeal; for it is not the air that makes the voice, but
- the figure which compasseth the air and its superficies,
- having received a stroke, give the voice. But every superficies of itself is incorporeal. True it is that it moveth
- with the body, but of itself it hath no body; as we perceive in a staff that is bended, the matter only admits of
- an inflection, while the superficies doth not. According to
- the Stoics, a voice is corporeal, since every thing that is an
- agent or operates is a body; a voice acts and operates, for
- we hear it and are sensible of it; for it falls and makes an
- impression on the ear, as a seal of a ring gives its similitude upon the wax. Moreover, every thing that creates a
- delight or molestation is a body; harmonious music affects
- with delight, but discord is tiresome. And every thing that
- is moved is a body; and the voice moves, and having its
- illapse upon smooth places is reflected, as when a ball is
- cast against a wall it rebounds. A voice spoken in the
-
-
THE Stoics say that the highest part of the soul is the - commanding part of it: this is the cause of sense, imagination, consents, and desires; and this we call the rational - part. From this principal and commander there are produced seven parts of the soul, which are spread through - the body, as the seven arms in a polypus. Of these seven - parts, five are assigned to the senses, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching. Sight is a spirit which is extended - from the commanding part to the eyes; hearing is that - spirit which from the principal reacheth to the ears ; smelling a spirit drawn from the principal to the nostrils; tasting a spirit extended from the principal to the tongue; - touching is a spirit which from the principal is drawn to - the extremity of those bodies which are obnoxious to a - sensible touch. Of the rest, the one called the spermatical is a spirit which reacheth from the principal to the - generating vessels; the other, which is the vocal and termed - the voice, is a spirit extended from the principal to the - throat, tongue, and other proper organs of speaking. And - this principal part itself hath that place in our spherical - head which God hath in the world. - -
-EMPEDOCLES thinks, that the first breath the first animal
- drew was when the moisture in unborn infants was separated,
-
-
Asclepiades supposeth the lungs to be in the manner of - a tunnel, and maketh the cause of breathing to be the - fineness of the inward parts of the breast; for thither the - outward air which is more gross hastens, but is forced backward, the breast not being capable either to receive or want - it. But there being always some of the more tenuous parts - of the air left, so that all of it is not exploded, to that - which there remains the more ponderous external air with - equal violence is forced; and this he compares to cupping-glasses. All spontaneous breathings are formed by the - contracting of the smaller pores of the lungs, and to the - closing up of the pipes in the neck; for these are at our - command.
-Herophilus attributes a moving faculty to the nerves,
- arteries, and muscles, but believes that the lungs are affected only with a natural desire of enlarging and contracting themselves. Farther, there is the first operation of the
- lungs by attraction of the outward air, which is drawn in
- because of the abundance of the external air. Next to
- this, there is a second natural appetite of the lungs; the
- breast, pouring in upon itself the breath, and being filled, is
- no longer able to make an attraction, and throws the superfluity
-
-
THE Stoics say that all the passions are seated in those - parts of the body which are affected, the senses have their - residence in the commanding part of the soul. Epicurus, - that all the passions and all the senses are in those parts - which are affected, but the commanding part is subject to - no passion. Strato, that all the passions and senses of the - soul are in the rational or commanding part of it, and are - not fixed in those places which are affected; for in this - part patience takes its residence, and this is apparent in - terrible and dolorous things, as also in timorous and valiant - persons.
-PLATO and the Stoics introduce divination as a divine - enthusiasm, the soul itself being of a divine constitution, and this prophetic faculty being an inspiration, or - an illapse of the divine knowledge into man; and sc - likewise they explain interpretation by dreams. And these - same admit many divisions of the art of divination. Xenophanes and Epicurus utterly refuse any such art of foretelling future contingencies. Pythagoras rejects all manner - of divination which is by sacrifices. Aristotle and Dicaearchus admit only these two kinds of it, a fury by a divine - inspiration, and dreams; they deny the immortality of the - soul, yet they affirm that the mind of man hath a participation of something that is divine. - -
-DEMOCRITUS says that dreams are formed by the illapse
- of adventitious representations. Strato, that the irrational
- part of the soul in sleep becoming more sensible is moved
- by the rational part of it. Herophilus, that dreams which
- are caused by divine instinct have a necessary cause; but
- dreams which have their origin from a natural cause arise
- from the soul's forming within itself the images of those
- things which are convenient for it, and which will happen;
- those dreams which are of a constitution mixed of both
- these have their origin from the fortuitous appulse of
- images, as when we see those things which please us;
- thus it happens many times to those persons who in
- their sleep imagine they embrace their mistresses.
-
-
ARISTOTLE says, that seed is that thing which contains in - itself a power of moving, whereby it is enabled to produce - a being like unto that from whence it was emitted. Pythagoras, that seed is the sediment of that which nourisheth - us, the froth of the purest blood, of the same nature as - the blood and marrow of our bodies. Alcmaeon, that it is - a part of the brain. Plato, that it is the deflux of the - spinal marrow. Epicurus, that it is a fragment torn from - the body and soul. Democritus, that it proceeds from all - the parts of the body, and chiefly from the principal parts. - as the flesh and muscles. - -
-LEUCIPPUS and Zeno say, that it is a body and a fragment of the soul. Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, that - the spermatic faculty is incorporeal, as the mind is which - moves the body; but the effused matter is corporeal. Strato - and Democritus, that the very power is a body; for it is - like spirit. - -
-PYTHAGORAS, Epicurus, and Democritus say, that women
- have a seminal projection, but their spermatic vessels are
- inverted; and it is this that makes them have a venereal
- appetite. Aristotle and Plato, that they emit a material
- moisture, as sweat we see produced by exercise and labor;
- but that moisture has no spermatic power. Hippo, that
-
-
ARISTOTLE says, that conception takes place when the - womb is drawn forward by the natural purgation, and - the monthly terms attract from the whole bulk part of the - purest blood, and this is met by the genital seed of man. - On the contrary, there is a failure by the impurity and - inflation of the womb, by the passions of fear and grief, by - the weakness of women, or the decay of strength in men. - -
-EMPEDOCLES affirms, that heat and cold give the difference in the generation of males and females. Hence is
- it, as histories acquaint us, that the first men had their
- original from the earth in the eastern and southern parts,
- and the first females in the northern parts thereof. Parmenides is of opinion perfectly contrariant. He affirms
- that men first sprouted out of the northern earth, for their
- bodies are more dense; women out of the southern, for
- theirs are more rare and fine. Hippo, that the more compacted and strong sperm, and the more fluid and weak,
- discriminate the sexes. Anaxagoras and Parmenides, that
- the seed of the man is naturally cast from his right side
- into the right side of the womb, or from the left side of
-
-
EMPEDOCLES believes that monsters receive their origination from the abundance or defect of seed, or from its - division into parts which are superabundant, or from some - perturbation in the motion, or else that there is an error by - a lapse into an improper receptacle; and thus he presumes - he hath given all the causes of monstrous conceptions. - Strato, that it comes from addition, subtraction, or transposition of the seed, or the distension or inflation of the - matrix. And some physicians say that the matrix suffers - distortion, being distended with wind. - -
-DIOCLES the physician says that either no genital sperm
- is projected, or, if there be, it is in a less quantity than
-
-
EMPEDOCLES affirms, that the superabundance of sperm - and the division of it causes the bringing forth of two or - three infants. Asclepiades, that it is performed from the - excellent quality of the sperm, after the manner that - from the root of one barleycorn two or three stalks do - grow; sperm that is of this quality is the most prolific. - Erasistratus, that superfetation may happen to women as - to irrational creatures; for, if the womb be well purged - and very clean, then there may be divers births. The - Stoics, that it ariseth from the various receptacles that are - in the womb: when the seed illapses into the first and - second of them at once, then there are conceptions upon - conception; and so two or three infants are born. - -
-EMPEDOCLES says, that the similitude of children to their
- parents proceeds from the vigorous prevalency of the
-
-
THE greatest part of physicians affirm, that this happens casually and fortuitously; for, when the sperm of the - man and woman is too much refrigerated, then children - carry a dissimilitude to their parents. Empedocles, that a - woman's imagination when she conceives impresses a shape - upon the infant; for women have been enamored with - images and statues, and the children which were born of - them gave their similitudes. The Stoics, that the resemblances flow from the sympathy and consent of minds, by - the insertion of effluvias and rays, not of images or pictures. - -
-THE physicians maintain, that sterility in women may
- arise from the womb; for if it be after any ways thus
-
-
ALCMAEON says, that the barrenness of the male mules
- ariseth from the thinness of the genital sperm, that is, the
- seed is too chill; the female mules are barren, for their
- womb does not open its mouth (as he expresses it). Empedocles, the matrix of the mule is so small, so depressed, so narrow, so invertedly growing to the belly,
- that the sperm cannot be regularly cast into it, and if it
- could, there would be no capacity to receive it. Diocles
- concurs in this opinion with him; for, saith he, in our
- anatomical dissection of mules we have seen that their
- matrices are of such configurations; and it is possible that
- there may be the same reason why some women are barren.
-
-
PLATO says, that the embryo is an animal; for, being - contained in the mother's womb, motion and aliment are - imparted to it. The Stoics say that it is not an animal, - but to be accounted part of the mother's belly; like as we - see the fruit of trees is esteemed part of the trees, until it - be full ripe; then it falls and ceaseth to belong to the tree; - and thus it is with the embryo. Empedocles, that the embryo is not an animal, yet whilst it remains in the belly it - breathes. The first breath that it draws as an animal is - when the infant is newly born; then the child having its - moisture separated, the extraneous air making an entrance - into the empty places, a respiration is caused in the infant - by the empty vessels receiving of it. Diogenes, that infants - are bred in the matrix inanimate, yet they have a natural - heat; but presently, when the infant is cast into the open - air, its heat draws air into the lungs, and so it becomes an - animal. Herophilus acknowledgeth that infants have a - natural, but not a respiratory motion, and that the nerves - are the cause of that motion; that then they become - animals, when being first born they suck in something of - the air. - -
-DEMOCRITUS and Epicurus say, that the embryos in the
- womb receive their aliment by the mouth, for we perceive,
- as soon as ever the infant is born, it applies its mouth to
- the breast; in the wombs of women (our understanding
- concludes) there are little dugs, and the embryos have
- small mouths by which they receive their nutriment. The
-
-
THE Stoics believe that the greater part is formed at - the same time. Aristotle, as the keel of a ship is first - made, so the first part that is formed is the loins. Alcmaeon, the head, for that is the commanding and the principal part of the body. The physicians, the heart, in - which are the veins and arteries. Some think the great - toe is first formed; others affirm the navel. - -
-EMPEDOCLES says, that when the human race took first
- its original from the earth, the sun was so slow in its
- motion that then one day in its length was equal to ten
- months, as now they are; in process of time one day
- became as long as seven months are; and there is the
- reason that those infants which are born at the end of
- seven months or ten months are born alive, the course
- of nature so disposing that the infant shall be brought to
- maturity in one day after that night in which it is begotten.
- Timaeus says, that we count not ten months but nine, by
- reason that we reckon the first conception from the retention
-
-
Aristotle and Hippocrates, that if the womb is grown
- full in seven months, then the child falls from the mother
- and is born alive; but if it falls from her but is not
- properly nourished, the navel being weak on account of
- the heavy burden of the infant, then it doth not thrive;
- but if the infant continues nine months in the womb, and
- then breaks forth from the woman, it is entire and perfect.
- Polybus, that a hundred and eighty-two days and a half
- suffice for the bringing forth of a living child; that is,
- six months, in which space of time the sun moves from
- one tropic to the other; and this is called seven months,
- for the days which are overplus in the sixth are accounted
- to give the seventh month. Those children which are
- born in the eighth month cannot live, for, the infant then
- falling from the womb, the navel, which is the cause of
- nourishment, is thereby too much stretched; and is the
- reason that the infant languishes and hath an atrophy.
- The astrologers, that eight months are enemies to every
- birth, seven are friends and kind to it. The signs of the
- zodiac are then enemies, when they fall upon those stars
- which are lords of houses; whatever infant is then born
- will have a life short and unfortunate. Those signs of
- the zodiac which are malevolent and injurious to generation are those pairs of which the last is reckoned the
- eighth from the first, as the first and the eighth, the second
-
-
THOSE philosophers who entertain the opinion that the
- world had an original do likewise assert that all animals
- are generated and corruptible. The followers of Epicurus,
- who gives an eternity to the world, affirm the generation
- of animals ariseth from the various permutation of parts
- mutually among themselves, for they are parts of this
- world. With them Anaxagoras and Euripides concur:
-
-
-
Anaximander's opinion is, that the first animals were generated in moisture, and were enclosed in bark on which
- thorns grew; but in process of time they came upon dry
- land, and this thorny bark with which they were covered
- being broken, they lived for a short space of time. Empedocles says, that the first generation of animals and
- plants was by no means completed, for the parts were
- disjoined and would not admit of a union; the second
- preparation for their being generated was when their parts
- were united and appeared in the form of images; the
- third preparation for generation was when their parts mutually amongst themselves gave a being to one another;
- the fourth, when there was no longer a mixture of similar
- elements (like earth and water), but a union of animals
- among themselves,—in some the nourishment being made
-
-
THERE is a certain treatise of Aristotle, in which animals
- are distributed into four kinds, terrestrial, aqueous, fowl,
- and heavenly; and he calls the stars and the world also
- animals, yea, and God himself he defines to be an animal
- endowed with reason and immortal. Democritus and Epicurus esteem all animals rational which have their residence in the heavens. Anaxagoras says that animals have
- only that reason which is operative, but not that which is
- passive, which is justly styled the interpreter of the mind,
- and is like the mind itself. Pythagoras and Plato, that the
- souls of all those who are styled brutes are rational; but
- by the evil constitution of their bodies, and because they
- have a want of a discoursive faculty, they do not act rationally. This is manifested in apes and dogs, which have
- voice but not speech. Diogenes, that this sort of animals
- are partakers of intelligence and air, but by reason of the
- density in some parts of them, and by the superfluity of
- moisture in others, they enjoy neither understanding nor
- sense; but they are affected as madmen are, the commanding rational part being defectuous and impeached.
-
-
EMPEDOCLES believes, that the joints of men begin to be - formed from the thirty-sixth day, and their shape is - completed in the nine and fortieth. Asclepiades, that - male embryos, by reason of a greater natural heat, have - their joints begun to be formed in the twenty-sixth day,— - many even sooner,—and that they are completed in all - their parts on the fiftieth day; the parts of the females - are articulated in two months, but by the defect of heat are - not consummated till the fourth; but the members of - brutes are completed at various times, according to the - commixture of the elements of which they consist. - -
-EMPEDOCLES says, that the fleshy parts of us are constituted by the contemperation of the four elements in us; - earth and fire mixed with a double proportion of water make - the nerves; but when it happens that the nerves are refrigerated where they meet the air, then the nails are made; - the bones are produced by two parts of water and the same - of air, with four parts of fire and the same of earth, duly - mixed together; sweat and tears flow from the liquefaction - of these bodies of ours. - -
-ALCMAEON says, that sleep is caused when the blood retreats to the concourse of the veins, but when the blood
-
-
HERACLITUS and the Stoics say, that men begin their - completeness when the second septenary of years begins, - about which time the seminal serum is emitted. Trees - first begin their perfection when they give their seeds; till - then they are immature, imperfect, and unfruitful. After - the same manner a man is completed in the second septenary of years, and is capable of learning what is good and - evil, and of discipline therein. - -
-ARISTOTLE'S opinion is, that both the soul and body sleep;
- and this proceeds from the moisture in the breast, which
- doth steam and arise in the manner of a vapor into the
-
-
PLATO and Empedocles believe, that plants are animals,
- and are informed with a soul; of this there are clear arguments, for they have tossing and shaking, and their
- branches are extended; when the woodmen bend them
- they yield, but they return to their former straightness and
- strength again when they are let loose, and even draw up
- weights that are laid upon them. Aristotle doth grant that
- they live, but not that they are animals; for animals are
- affected with appetite, sense, and reason. The Stoics and
- Epicureans deny that they are informed with a soul; by
- reason that all sorts of animals have either sense, appetite,
- or reason; but plants move fortuitously, and not by means
- of any soul. Empedocles, that the first of all animals
- were trees, and they sprang from the earth before the sun
- in its glory enriched the world, and before day and night
-
-
EMPEDOCLES believes, that animals are nourished by the - remaining in them of that which is proper to their own - nature; they are augmented by the application of heat; and - the subtraction of either of these makes them to languish - and decay. The stature of men in this present age, if compared with the magnitude of those men which were first - produced, is no other than a mere infancy. - -
-EMPEDOCLES says that the want of those elements which
- compose animals gives to them appetite, and pleasures
-
-
ERASISTRATUS gives this definition of a fever: A fever - is a quick motion of blood, not produced by our consent, - which enters into the vessels proper unto the vital spirits. - This we see in the sea; it is in a serene calm when nothing disturbs it, but is in motion when a violent preternatural wind blows upon it, and then it rageth and is circled - with waves. After this manner it is in the body of man; - when the blood is in a nimble agitation, then it falls upon - those vessels in which the spirits are, and there being in - an extraordinary heat, it fires the whole body. The opinion that a fever is an appendix to a preceding affection - pleaseth him. Diodes proceeds after this manner: Those - things which are internal and latent are manifested by - those which externally break forth and appear; and it is - clear to us that a fever is annexed to certain outward - affections, for example, to wounds, inflaming tumors, inguinary abscesses. - -
-ALCMAEON says that the preserver of health is an equal
- proportion of the qualities of heat, moisture, cold, dryness,
- bitterness, sweetness, and the other qualities; on the contrary, the prevailing empire of one above the rest is the
- cause of diseases and author of destruction. The efficient
-
-
This pointer pattern extracts book and chapter.
+This pointer pattern extracts book.
+IT being our determination to discourse of Natural Philosophy, we judge it necessary, in the first place and chiefly, to divide the body of philosophy into its proper members, that we may know what is that which is called philosophy, and what part of it is physical, or the explanation of natural things. The Stoics affirm that wisdom is the knowledge of things human and divine; that philosophy is the exercise of that art which is expedient to this knowledge; that virtue is the sole and sovereign art which is thus expedient; and this distributes itself into three general parts, —natural, moral, and logical. By which just reason (they say) philosophy is tripartite; of which one is natural, the other moral, the third logical. The natural is when our enquiries are concerning the world and all things contained in it; the ethical is the employment of our minds in those things which concern the manners of man's life; the logical (which they also call dialectical) regulates our conversation with others in speaking. Aristotle, Theophrastus, and after them almost all the Peripatetics give the following division of philosophy. It is absolutely requisite that the complete person be contemplator of things which have a being, and the practiser of those things which are decent; and this easily appears by the following instances. If the question be proposed, whether the sun, which is so conspicuous to us, be informed with a soul or inanimate,
SINCE we have undertaken to make a diligent search into Nature, I cannot but conclude it necessary to declare what Nature is. It is very absurd to attempt a discourse of the essence of natural things, and not to understand what is the power and sphere of Nature. If Aristotle be credited, Nature is the principle of motion and rest, in that thing in which it exists principally and not by accident. For all things that are conspicuous to our eyes, which are neither fortuitous nor necessary, nor have a divine original, nor acknowledge any such like cause, are called natural and enjoy their proper nature. Of this sort are earth, fire, water, air, plants, animals; to these may be added all things produced from them, such as showers, hail, thunders, hurricanes, and winds. All these confess they had a beginning, none of these were from eternity, but had something as the origin of them; and likewise animals and plants have a principle whence they are produced.
THE followers of Aristotle and Plato conclude that the elements are discriminated from a principle. Thales the Milesian supposeth that a principle and the elements are one and the same thing, but it is evident that they vastly differ one from another. For the elements are things compounded; but we do pronounce that principles admit not of a composition, nor are the effects of any other being. Those which we call elements are earth, water, air, and fire. But we term those principles which have nothing precedent to them out of which they are produced; for otherwise not these themselves, but rather those things whereof they are produced, would be the principles. Now there are some things which have a pre-existence to earth and water, from which they are begotten; to wit, matter, which is without form or shape; then form, which we call actuality); and lastly, privation. Thales therefore is very peccant, by affirming that water is both an element and a principle.
THALES the Milesian doth affirm that water is the principle whence all things in the universe spring. This
Anaximander, who himself was a Milesian, assigns the principle of all things to the Infinite, from whence all things flow, and into the same are corrupted; hence it is that infinite worlds are framed, and those vanish again into that whence they have their original. And thus he farther proceeds, For what other reason is there of an Infinite but this, that there may be nothing deficient as to the generation or subsistence of what is in nature? There is his error, that he doth not acquaint us what this Infinite is, whether it be air, or water, or earth, or any other such like body. Besides he is peccant, in that, giving us the material cause, he is silent as to the efficient cause of beings; for this thing which he makes his Infinite can be nothing but matter; but operation cannot take place in the sphere of matter, except an efficient cause be annexed.
+Anaximenes his fellow-citizen pronounceth, that air is the
Anaxagoras the Clazomenian asserted Homoeomeries (or parts similar or homogeneous) to be the original cause of all beings; it seemed to him impossible that any thing could arise of nothing or be resolved into nothing. Let us therefore instance in nourishment, which appears simple and uniform, such as bread which we owe to Ceres, and water which we drink. Of this very nutriment, our hair, our veins, our arteries, nerves, bones, and all our other parts are nourished. These things thus being performed, it must be granted that the nourishment which is received by us contains all those things by which these parts of us are increased. In it there are those particles which are producers of blood, bones, nerves, and all other parts; which particles (as he thought) reason discovers for us. For it is not necessary that we should reduce all things under the objects of sense; for bread and water are fitted to the senses, yet in them there are those particles latent which are discoverable only by reason. It being therefore evident that there are particles in the nourishment similar to what is produced thereby, he terms these homogeneous parts, averring that they are the principles All things were confused one among another; but Mind divided and reduced them to order.
In this he is to be commended, that he yokes together matter and an intellectual agent.
Archelaus the son of Apollodorus, the Athenian, pronounceth, that the principles of all things have their original from an infinite air rarefied or condensed. Air rarefied is fire, condensed is water.
+These philosophers, the followers of Thales, succeeding one another, made up that sect which takes to itself the denomination of the Ionic.
+Pythagoras the Samian, the son of Mnesarchus, from another origin deduces the principles of all things; it was he who first gave philosophy its name. He assigns the first principles to be numbers, and those symmetries resulting from them which he styles harmonies; and the result of both combined he terms elements, called geometrical. Again, he enumerates unity and the indefinite binary number amongst the principles. One of these principles tends to an efficient and forming cause, which is Mind, and that is God; the other to the passive and material part, and that is the visible world. Moreover the nature of number (he saith) consists in the ten; for all people, whether Grecians or barbarians, reckon from one to ten, and thence return to one again. Farther he avers the virtue of ten consists in the quaternion; the reason whereof is this,— if any person reckon from one, and by addition place his numbers so as to take in the quaternary, he shall complete the number ten; if he exceed the four, he shall go beyond the ten; for one, two, three, and four being cast up together make up ten. The nature of numbers, therefore, if we regard
Of this number the soul of man is composed; for mind, knowledge, opinion, and sense are the four that complete the soul, from which all sciences, all arts, all rational faculties derive themselves. For what our mind perceives, it perceives after the manner of a thing that is one, the soul itself being a unity; as for instance, a multitude of persons are not the object of our sense nor are comprehended by us, for they are infinite; our understanding gives the general notion of a man, in which all individuals agree. The number of individuals is infinite; the generic or specific nature of all being is a unit, or to be apprehended as one only thing; from this one conception we give the genuine measures of all existence, and therefore we affirm that a certain class of beings are rational and discoursive beings. But when we come to give the nature of a horse, it is that animal which neighs; and this being common to all horses, it is manifest that the understanding, which hath such like conceptions, is in its nature unity. The number which is called the infinite binary must needs be science; in every demonstration or belief belonging to science, and in every syllogism, we draw that conclusion which is the question doubted of, from those propositions which are by all granted, by which means another proposition is demonstrated. The comprehension of these we call knowledge; for which reason science is the binary number. But opinion is the ternary; for that rationally follows from comprehension. The objects of opinion are many things, and the ternary number denotes a multitude, as Thrice happy Grecians;
for which reason Pythagoras admits the ternary.
Heraclitus and Hippasus of Metapontum suppose that fire gives the origination to all beings, that they all flow from fire, and in fire they all conclude; for of fire when first quenched the world was constituted. The first part of the world, being most condensed and contracted within itself, made the earth; but part of that earth being loosened and made thin by fire, water was produced; afterwards this water being exhaled and rarefied into vapors became air; after all this the world itself, and all other corporeal beings, shall be dissolved by fire in the universal conflagration. By them therefore it appears that fire is what gives beginning to all things, and is that in which all things receive their period.
+Epicurus the son of Neocles, the Athenian, his philosophical sentiments being the same with those of Democritus, affirms that the principles of all being are bodies which are perceptible only by reason; they admit not of a vacuity, nor of any original, but being of a self-existence are eternal and incorruptible; they are not liable to any diminution, they are indestructible, nor is it possible for them to receive any transformation of parts, or admit of any alterations; of these reason only is the discoverer; they are in a perpetual motion in vacuity, and by means of the empty space; for the vacuum itself is infinite, and the bodies that move in it are infinite. Those bodies acknowledge these three accidents, figure, magnitude, and gravity. Democritus acknowledged but two, magnitude and figure. Epicurus added the third, to wit, gravity; for he pronounced that it is necessary that bodies receive their motion from that impression which springs from gravity, otherwise they could not be moved. The figures of atoms
Empedocles the Agrigentine, the son of Meton, affirms that there are four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, and two powers which bear the greatest command in nature, concord and discord, of which one is the union, the other the division of beings. Thus he sings,
By Jupiter he means fire and aether, by Juno that gives life he means the air, by Pluto the earth, by Nestis and the fountain of all mortals (as it were) seed and water.
+Socrates the son of Sophroniscus, and Plato son of Ariston, both natives of Athens, entertain the same opinion concerning the universe; for they suppose three principles, God, matter, and the idea. God is the universal understanding; matter is that which is the first substratum, accommodated for the generation and corruption of beings; the idea is an incorporeal essence, existing in the cogitations and apprehensions of God; for God is the soul and mind of the world.
+Aristotle the son of Nichomachus, the Stagirite, constitutes three principles; Entelecheia (which is the same with form), matter, and privation. He acknowledges four elements,
Zeno son of Mnaseas, the native of Citium, avers these principles to be God and matter, the first of which is the efficient cause, the other the passible and receptive. Four elements he likewise confesses.
THE world being broken and confused, after this manner it was reduced into figure and composure as now it is. The insectible bodies or atoms, by a wild and fortuitous motion, without any governing power, incessantly and swiftly were hurried one amongst another, many bodies being jumbled together; upon this account they have a diversity in the figures and magnitude. These therefore being so jumbled together, those bodies which were the greatest and heaviest sank into the lowest place; they that were of a lesser magnitude, being round, smooth, and slippery, meeting with those heavier bodies were easily broken into pieces, and were carried into higher places. But when that force whereby these variously figured particles fought with and struck one another, and forced the lighter upwards, did cease, and there was no farther power left to drive them into superior regions, yet they were wholly hindered from descending downwards, and were compelled to reside in those places capable to receive them; and these were the heavenly spaces, unto which a multitude of these little bodies were whirled, and these being thus shivered fell into coherence and mutual embraces, and by this means the heaven was produced. Then a various and great multitude of atoms enjoying the same nature, as it is before asserted,
THE Stoics pronounce that the world is one thing, and this they say is the universe and is corporeal.
+Empedocles's opinion is, that the world is one; yet by no means the system of this world must be styled the universe, but that it is a small part of it, and the remainder is idle matter.
+What to Plato seems the truest he thus declares, that there is one world, and that world is the universe; and this he endeavors to evince by three arguments. First, that the world could not be complete and perfect, if it did
To Metrodorus it seems absurd, that in a large field one only stalk should grow, and in an infinite space one only world exist; and that this universe is infinite is manifest by this, that there are causes infinite. Now if this world were finite and the causes which produced it infinite, it is necessary that the worlds likewise be infinite; for where all causes do concur, there the effects also must appear, let the causes be what they will, either atoms or elements.
THE Stoics thus define the essence of a God. It is a spirit intellectual and fiery, which acknowledges no shape, but is continually changed into what it pleases, and assimilates itself to all things. The knowledge of this Deity they first received from the pulchritude of those things which so visibly appeared to us; for they concluded that nothing beauteous could casually or fortuitously be formed, but that it was framed from the art of a great understanding
There are a thousand others that give us the suitable reflections of the beauty of the world. Thus Euripides:
From this the knowledge of a God is conveyed to man; that the sun, the moon, and the rest of the stars, being carried under the earth, rise again in their proper color, magnitude, place, and times. Therefore they who by tradition
In the second and third place, they thus distinguished the Deities into those which are beneficial and those that are injurious to mankind. Those which are beneficial they call Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Ceres; those who are mischievous the Dirae, Furies, and Mars. These, which threaten dangers and violence, men endeavor to appease and conciliate by sacred rites. The fourth and the fifth order of Gods they assign to things and passions; to passions, Love, Venus, and Desire; the Deities that preside over things, Hope, Justice, and Eunomia.
The sixth order of deities are those made by the poets; Hesiod, willing to find out a father for those Gods that acknowledge an original, invented their progenitors,
upon which account this is called the fabulous. The seventh rank of the deities added to the rest are those which, by their beneficence to mankind, were honored with a divine worship, though they were born of mortal race; of this sort were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, and Bacchus. These are reputed to be of a human species; for of all beings that which is divine is most excellent, and man amongst all animals is adorned with the greatest beauty, and is also the best, being distinguished by virtue above the rest because of his intellect: therefore it was thought that those who were admirable for goodness should resemble that which is the best and most beautiful.
SOME of the philosophers, such as Diagoras the Melian, Theodorus the Cyrenean, and Euemerus the Tegeatan, did unanimously deny there were any Gods; and Callimachus the Cyrenean discovered his mind touching Euemerus in these Iambic verses, thus writing:
Panchaean Jove.
See Diodorus, VI. Frag. 2; and Bentley's note to Callimachus, Frag. 86. (G.)
meaning books which denote there are no Gods. Euripides the tragedian durst not openly declare his sentiment;
Afterwards by the sanction of laws wickedness was suppressed; but by reason that laws could prohibit only public villanies, yet could not hinder many persons from acting secret impieties, some wise persons gave this advice, that we ought to blind truth with lying disguises, and to persuade men that there is a God:
But this poetical fable ought to be rejected, he thought, together with Callimachus, who thus saith:
But God cannot do every thing; for, if it were so, then God could make snow black, and the fire cold, and him that is in a posture of sitting to be upright, and so on the contrary. The brave-speaking Plato pronounceth that God formed the world after his own image; but this smells rank of the old dotages, old comic poets would say; for how did God, casting his eye upon himself, frame this universe ? Or how can God be spherical, and not be inferior to man?
+Anaxagoras avers that bodies did consist from all eternity, but the divine intellect did reduce them into their proper orders, and effected the origination of all beings. Plato did not suppose that the primary bodies had their consistence and repose, but that they were moved confusedly and in disorder; but God, knowing that order was A virtuous prince, for warlike acts renowned,
and by an adulterer and adulteress was vanquished and perfidiously slain. Hercules, after he had freed the life of man from many things that were pernicious to it, perished by the witchcraft and poison of Deianira.
+Thales said that the intelligence of the world was God.
+Anaximander concluded that the stars were heavenly Deities.
+Democritus said that God, being a globe of fire, is intelligence and the soul of the world.
+Pythagoras says that, of his principles, unity is God; and the perfect good, which is indeed the nature of a unity, is mind itself; but the binary number, which is infinite, is a devil, and in its own nature evil,—about which the multitude of material beings, and this world which is the object of our eyes, are conversant.
+Socrates and Plato agree that God is that which is one, hath its original from its own self, is of a singular subsistence, is one only being perfectly good; all these various names signifying goodness do all centre in mind; hence God is to be understood as that mind and intellect, which is a separate idea, that is to say, pure and unmixed of all matter, and not twisted with any thing obnoxious to passions.
+Aristotle's sentiment is, that God hath his residence in superior regions, and hath placed his throne in the sphere of the universe, and is a separate idea; which sphere is an ethereal body, which is by him styled the fifth essence or quintessence. For there is a division of the universe into spheres, which are contiguous by their nature but appear to reason to be separated; and he concludes that each of the spheres is an animal, composed of a body and soul; the body of them is ethereal, moved orbicularly, the soul is the rational form, which is unmoved, and yet is the cause that the sphere is actually in motion.
+The Stoics affirm that God is a thing more common and
In the judgment of Epicurus all the Gods are anthropomorphites, or have the shape of men; but they are perceptible only by reason, for their nature admits of no other manner of being apprehended, their parts being so small and fine that they give no corporeal representations. The same Epicurus asserts that there are four other natural beings which are immortal: of this sort are atoms, the vacuum, the infinite, and the similar parts; and these last are called Homoeomeries and likewise elements.
HAVING treated of the essence of the deities in a just order, it follows that we discourse of daemons and heroes. Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics do conclude that daemons are essences which are endowed with souls; that the heroes are the souls separated from their bodies, some are good, some are bad; the good are those whose souls are good, the evil those whose souls are wicked. All this is rejected by Epicurus.
MATTER is that first being which is substrate for generation, corruption, and all other alterations.
The disciples of Thales and Pythagoras, with the Stoics, are of opinion that matter is changeable, mutable, convertible, and sliding through all things.
+The followers of Democritus aver that the vacuum, the atom, and the incorporeal substance are the first beings, and not obnoxious to passions.
+Aristotle and Plato affirm that matter is of that species which is corporeal, void of any form, species, figure, and quality, but apt to receive all forms, that she may be the nurse, the mother, and origin of all other beings. But they that do say that water, earth, air, and fire are matter do likewise say that matter cannot be without form, but conclude it is a body; but they that say that individual particles and atoms are matter do say that matter is without form.
AN idea is a being incorporeal, which has no subsistence by itself, but gives figure and form unto shapeless matter, and becomes the cause of its manifestation.
+Socrates and Plato conjecture that these ideas are essences separate from matter, having their existence in the understanding and fancy of the Deity, that is, of mind.
+Aristotle objected not to forms and ideas; but he doth not believe them separated from matter, or patterns of what God has made.
+Those Stoics, that are of the school of Zeno, profess that ideas are nothing else but the conceptions of our own mind.
A CAUSE is that by which any thing is produced, or by which any thing is effected.
Plato gives this triple division of causes,—the material, the efficient, and the final cause; the principal cause he judges to be the efficient, which is the mind and intellect.
+Pythagoras and Aristotle judge the first causes are incorporeal beings, but those that are causes by accident or participation become corporeal substances; by this means the world is corporeal.
+The Stoics grant that all causes are corporeal, inasmuch as they are breath.
A BODY is that being which hath these three dimensions, breadth, depth, and length ;—or a bulk which makes a sensible resistance;—or whatsoever of its own nature possesseth a place.
+Plato saith that it is neither heavy nor light in its own nature, when it exists in its own place; but being in the place where another should be, then it has an inclination by which it tends to gravity or levity.
+Aristotle saith that, if we simply consider things in their own nature, the earth only is to be judged heavy, and fire light; but air and water are sometimes heavy and sometimes light.
+The Stoics think that of the four elements two are light, fire and air; two ponderous, earth and water; that which is naturally light doth by its own nature, not by any inclination, recede from its own centre; but that which is heavy doth by its own nature tend to its centre; for the centre is not a heavy thing of itself.
+Epicurus thinks that bodies are not to be limited; but the first bodies, which are simple bodies, and all those composed of them, all acknowledge gravity; that all atoms
EMPEDOCLES, precedent to the four elements, introduceth the most minute bodies which resemble elements; but they did exist before the elements, having similar parts and orbicular.
+Heraclitus brings in the smallest fragments, and those indivisible.
A FIGURE is the exterior appearance, the circumscription, and the boundary of a body.
+The Pythagoreans say that the bodies of the four elements are spherical, fire being in the supremest place only excepted, whose figure is conical.
COLOR is the visible quality of a body.
+The Pythagoreans called color the outward appearance of a body. Empedocles, that which is consentaneous to the passages of the eye. Plato, that they are fires emitted from bodies, which have parts harmonious for the sight. Zeno the Stoic, that colors are the first figurations of matter. The Pythagoreans, that colors are of four sorts, white and black, red and pale; and they derive the variety
THE disciples of Thales and Pythagoras grant that all bodies are passible and divisible unto infinity. Others hold that atoms and indivisible parts are there fixed, and admit not of a division into infinity. Aristotle, that all bodies are potentially but not actually divisible into infinity.
THE ancient philosophers held that the mixture of elements proceeded from the alteration of qualities; but the disciples of Anaxagoras and Democritus say it is done by apposition. Empedocles composes the elements of still smaller bulks, those which are the most minute and may be termed the elements of elements. Plato assigns three bodies (but he will not allow these to be elements, nor properly so called), air, fire, and water, which are mutable into one another; but the earth is mutable into none of these.
ALL the natural philosophers from Thales to Plato rejected a vacuum. Empedocles says that there is nothing of a vacuity in nature, nor any thing superabundant. Leucippus, Pythagoras.
(G.)
PLATO, to define place, calls it that thing which in its own bosom receives forms and ideas; by which metaphor he signifies matter, being (as it were) a nurse or receptacle of beings. Aristotle, that it is the ultimate superficies of the circumambient body, contiguous to that which it doth encompass.
THE Stoics and Epicureans make a place, a vacuum, and a space to differ. A vacuum is that which is void of any thing that may be called a body; place is that which is possessed by a body; a space that which is partly filled with a body, as a cask with wine.
IN the sense of Pythagoras, time is that sphere which encompasses the world. Plato says that it is a movable
PLATO says that the heavenly motion is time. Most of the Stoics affirm that motion itself is time. Most philosophers think that time had no beginning; Plato, that time had only an ideal beginning.
PLATO and Pythagoras say that motion is a change and alteration in matter. Aristotle, that it is the actual operation of that which may be moved. Democritus, that there is but one sort of motion, and it is that which is vibratory. Epicurus, that there are two species of motion, one perpendicular, and the other oblique. Herophilus, that one species of motion is obvious only to reason, the other to sense. Heraclitus utterly denies that there is any thing of quiet or repose in nature; for that is the state of the dead; one sort of motion is eternal, which he assigns to beings eternal, the other perishable, to those things which are perishable.
PARMENIDES, Melissus, and Zeno deny that there are any such things as generation and corruption, for they suppose that the universe is unmovable. Empedocles, Epicurus, and
THALES says that necessity is omnipotent, and that it exerciseth an empire over every thing. Pythagoras, that the world is invested by necessity. Parmenides and Democritus, that there is nothing in the world but what is necessarily, and that this same necessity is otherwise called fate, justice, providence, and the architect of the world.
PLATO distinguisheth and refers some things to Providence, others to necessity. Empedocles makes the nature of necessity to be that cause which employs principles and elements. Democritus makes it to be a resistance, impulse, and force of matter. Plato sometimes says that necessity is matter; at other times, that it is the habitude or respect of the efficient cause towards matter.
HERACLITUS, who attributes all things to fate, makes necessity to be the same thing with it. Plato admits of a necessity in the minds and the actions of men, but yet he introduceth a cause which flows from ourselves. The Stoics, in this agreeing with Plato, say that necessity is a cause invincible and violent; that fate is the ordered complication of causes, in which there is an intexture of those things which proceed from our own determination, so that some things are to be attributed to fate, others not.
ACCORDING to Heraclitus, the essence of fate is a certain reason which penetrates the substance of all being; and this is an ethereal body, containing in itself that seminal faculty which gives an original to every being in the universe. Plato declares that it is the eternal reason and the eternal law of the nature of the universe. Chrysippus, that it is a spiritual faculty, which in due order doth manage and rule the universe. Again, in his book styled the Definitions, that fate is the reason of the world, or that it is that law whereby Providence rules and administers every thing that is in the world; or it is that reason by which all things past have been, all things present are, and all things future will be. The Stoics say that it is a chain of causes, that is, it is an order and connection of causes which cannot be resisted. Posidonius, that it is a being the third in degree from Jupiter; the first of beings is Jupiter, the second nature, and the third fate.
PLATO says, that it is an accidental cause and a casual consequence in things which proceed from the election and counsel of men. Aristotle, that it is an accidental cause in those things which are done by an impulse to a certain end; and this cause is uncertain and unstable: there is a great deal of difference betwixt that which flows from chance and that which falls out by Fortune; for that which is fortuitous admits also of chance, and belongs to things practical; but what is by chance cannot be also by Fortune, for it belongs to things without action: Fortune, moreover, belongs to rational beings, but chance to rational and irrational beings alike, and even to inanimate things. Epicurus, that it is a cause not always consistent, but various as to persons, times, and manners. Anaxagoras and the Stoics, that it is that cause which human reason cannot comprehend; for there are some things which proceed from necessity, some things from Fate, some from choice and free-will, some from Fortune, some from chance.
EMPEDOCLES believes that Nature is nothing else but the mixture and separation of the elements; for thus he writes in the first book of his natural philosophy:
Anaxagoras is of the same opinion, that Nature is coalition and separation, that is, generation and corruption.
HAVING finished my dissertation concerning principles and elements and those things which chiefly appertain to them, I will turn my pen to discourse of those things which are produced by them, and will take my beginning from the world, which contains and encompasseth all beings.
PYTHAGORAS was the first philosopher that gave the name of
THE Stoics say that the figure of the world is spherical, others that it is conical, others oval. Epicurus, that the figure of the world may be globular, or that it may admit of other shapes.
DEMOCRITUS, Epicurus, and those philosophers who introduced atoms and a vacuum, affirm that the world is not an animal, nor governed by any wise Providence, but that it is managed by a nature which is void of reason. All the other philosophers affirm that the world is informed with a soul, and governed by reason and Providence. Aristotle is excepted, who is somewhat different; he is of opinion, that the whole world is not acted by a soul in every part of it, nor hath it any sensitive, rational, or intellectual faculties, nor is it guided by reason and Providence in every part of it; of all which the heavenly bodies are made partakers, for the circumambient spheres are animated and are living beings; but those things which are about the earth are void of those endowments; and though those terrestrial bodies are of an orderly disposition, yet that is casual and not primogenial.
PYTHAGORAS [and Plato], with the Stoics, affirm that the world was framed by God, and being corporeal is obvious
ARISTOTLE says that, if the world be nourished, it will likewise be dissolved; but it requires no aliment, and will therefore be eternal. Plato, that this very world prepares for itself a nutriment, by the alteration of those things which are corruptible in it. Philolaus believes that a destruction happens to the world in two ways; either by fire falling from heaven, or by the lunary water being poured down through the whirling of the air; and the exhalations proceeding from thence are the aliment of the world.
THE natural philosophers pronounce that the forming of this world took its original from the earth, it being its centre, for the centre is the principal part of the globe. Pythagoras, from the fire and the fifth element. Empedocles determines, that the first and principal element separated from the rest was the ether, then fire, after that the earth, which earth being strongly compacted by the
PARMENIDES believes that there are small coronets alternately twisted one within another, some made up of a thin, others of a condensed matter; and there are others between them mixed mutually together of light and of darkness, and about them all there is a solid substance, which like a firm wall surrounds these coronets. Leucippus and Democritus wrap the world round about, as with a garment and membrane. Epicurus says that that which bounds some worlds is thin, and that which limits others is gross and condensed; and of these worlds some are in motion, others are fixed. Plato, that fire takes the first place in the world, the second the ether, after that the air, under that the water; the last place the earth possesseth: sometimes he puts the ether and the fire in the same place. Aristotle gives the first place to the ether, as
DIOGENES and Anaxagoras affirm that, after the world was composed and the earth had produced living creatures, the world out of its own propensity made an inclination towards the south. Perhaps this may be attributed to a wise Providence (they say), that thereby some parts of the world may be habitable, others uninhabitable, according as the various climates are affected with a rigorous cold, or a scorching heat, or a just temperament of cold and heat. Empedocles, that the air yielding to the impetuous force of the solar rays, the pole received an inclination; whereby the northern parts were exalted and the southern depressed, by which means the whole world received its inclination.
PYTHAGORAS and his followers say that beyond the world there is a vacuum, into which and out of which the world hath its respiration. The Stoics, that there is a vacuum into which the infinite world by a conflagration shall be
PYTHAGORAS, Plato, and Aristotle say that the eastern parts of the world, from whence motion commences, are of the right, those of the western are of the left-hand of the world. Empedocles, that those that are of the right-hand are towards the summer solstice, those of the left towards the winter solstice.
ANAXIMENES declares that the circumference of heaven is the limit of the earth's revolution. Empedocles, that the heaven is a solid substance, and hath the form and hardness of crystal, it being composed of the air compacted by fire, and that in both hemispheres it invests the elements of air and fire. Aristotle, that it is formed by the fifth body, and by the mixture of extreme heat and cold
THALES, Pythagoras, and the followers of Pythagoras do distribute the universal globe of heaven into five circles,
THALES believes that they are globes of earth set on fire. Empedocles, that they are fiery bodies arising from that fire which the ether embraced within itself, and did shatter in pieces when the elements were first separated one from another. Anaxagoras, that the circumambient ether is of a fiery substance, which, by a vehement force in its whirling about, did tear stones from the earth, and by its own power set them on fire, and establish them as stars in the heavens. Diogenes thinks they resemble pumice stones, and that they are the breathings of the world; again he supposeth that there are some invisible stones, which sometimes fall from heaven upon the earth, and are there quenched; as it happened at Aegos-potami, where a stony star resembling fire did fall. Empedocles, that the fixed stars are fastened to the crystal, but the planets are loosened. Plato, that the stars for the most part are of a fiery nature, but they are made partakers of another element, with which they are mixed after the resemblance of glue. Xenophanes, that they are composed of inflamed
THE Stoics say that the stars are of a circular form, like the sun, the moon, and the world. Cleanthes, that they are of a conical figure. Anaximenes, that they are fastened as nails in the crystalline firmament; some others, that they are fiery plates of gold, resembling pictures.
XENOCRATES says that the stars are moved in one and the same superficies. The other Stoics say that they are moved in various superficies, some being superior, others inferior. Democritus, that the fixed stars are in the highest place; after those the planets; after which the sun, Venus, and the moon, in their order. Plato, that the first after the fixed stars that makes its appearance is Phaenon, the star of Saturn; the second Phaëton, the star of Jupiter; the third the fiery, which is the star of Mars; the fourth the morning star, which is the star of Venus;
ANAXAGORAS, Democritus, and Cleanthes say that all the stars have their motion from east to west. Alcmaeon and the mathematicians, that the planets have a contrary motion to the fixed stars, and in opposition to them are carried from the west to the east. Anaximander, that they are moved by those circles and spheres on which they are placed. Anaximenes, that they are turned under and about the earth. Plato and the mathematicians, that the sun, Venus, and Mercury have equal measures in their motions.
METRODORUS says that all the fixed stars derive their light from the sun. Heraclitus and the Stoics, that earthly exhalations are those by which the stars are nourished. Aristotle, that the heavenly bodies require no nutriment, for they being eternal cannot be obnoxious to corruption. Plato and the Stoics, that the whole world and the stars are fed by the same things.
XENOPHANES says that those which appear as stars in the tops of ships are little clouds shining by their peculiar motion. Metrodorus, that the eyes of frighted and astonished people emit those lights which are called the Twins.
PLATO says that the summer and winter indications proceed from the rising and setting of the stars, that is, from the rising and setting of the sun, the moon, and the fixed stars. Anaximenes, that the others in this are not at all concerned, but that it is wholly performed by the sun. Eudoxus and Aratus assign it in common to all the stars, for thus Aratus sings:
ANAXIMANDER says, that the sun is a circle eight and twenty times bigger than the earth, and has a circumference which very much resembles that of a chariot-wheel, which is hollow and full of fire; the fire of which appears to us through its mouth, as by a hole in a pipe; and this is the sun. Xenophanes, that the sun is constituted of small bodies of fire compact together and raised from a
ANAXIMANDER says, that the sun itself in greatness is equal to the earth, but that the circle from whence it
ANAXIMENES affirms that in its dilatation it resembles a leaf. Heraclitus, that it hath the shape of a boat, and is somewhat crooked. The Stoics, that it is spherical, and it is of the same figure with the world and the stars. Epicurus, that the recited dogmas may be defended.
ANAXIMENES thinks that the stars are forced by a condensed and resisting air. Anaxagoras, by the repelling force of the northern air, which is violently pushed on by the sun, and thus rendered more condensed and powerful. Empedocles, that the sun is hindered from a continual direct course by its spherical vehicle and by the two circular tropics. Diogenes, that the sun, when it comes to its utmost declination, is extinguished, a rigorous cold damping the heat. The Stoics, that the sun maintains its course only through that space in which its aliment is seated, let it be the ocean or the earth; by the exhalations proceeding from these it is nourished. Plato, Pythagoras, and Aristotle, that
THALES was the first who affirmed that the eclipse of the sun was caused by the moon's running in a perpendicular line between it and the earth; for the moon in its own nature is terrestrial. And by mirrors it is made perspicuous that, when the sun is eclipsed, the moon is in a direct line below it. Anaximander, that the sun is eclipsed when the fiery mouth of it is stopped and hindered from expiration. Heraclitus, that it is after the manner of the turning of a boat, when the concave appears uppermost to our sight, and the convex nethermost. Xenophanes, that the sun is eclipsed when it is extinguished; and that a new sun is created to rise in the east. He gives a farther account of an eclipse-of the sun which remained for a whole month, and again of a total eclipse which changed the day into night. Some say that the cause of an eclipse is the invisible concourse of condensed clouds which cover the orb of the sun. Aristarchus placeth the sun amongst the fixed stars, and believeth that the earth [the moon?] is moved about the sun, and that by its inclination and vergency it intercepts its light and shadows its orb. Xenophanes, that there are many suns and many moons, according as the earth is distinguished by climates, circles, and zones. At some certain times the orb of the sun, falling upon some part of the world which is uninhabited, wanders in a vacuum and becomes eclipsed. The same person affirms that the sun, proceeding in its motion in the infinite space, appears to us to move orbicularly, receiving that representation from its infinite distance from us.
ANAXIMANDER affirms that the circle of the moon is nineteen times bigger than the earth, and resembles the sun, its orb being full of fire; and it suffers an eclipse when the wheel turneth,—which he describes by the divers turnings of a chariot-wheel, in the midst of it there being a hollow replenished with fire, which hath but one way of expiration. Xenophanes, that it is a condensed cloud. The Stoics, that it is mixed of fire and air. Plato, that it is a body of the greatest part earthy. Anaxagoras and Democritus, that it is a solid, condensed, and fiery body, in which there are champaign countries, mountains, and valleys. Heraclitus, that it is an earth covered with a cloud. Pythagoras, that the body of the moon was of a nature like a mirror.
THE Stoics declare, that in magnitude it exceeds the earth, as the sun itself doth. Parmenides, that it is equal to the sun, from whom it receives its light.
THE Stoics believe that it is of the same figure with the sun, spherical. Empedocles, that the figure of it resembles a quoit. Heraclitus, a boat. Others, a cylinder.
ANAXIMANDER thinks that she gives light to herself, but
ANAXIMENES believes that the mouth of the hollow wheel, about which the moon is turned, being stopped is the cause of, an eclipse. Berosus, that it proceeds from the turning of the dark side of the lunar orb towards us. Heraclitus, that it is performed just after the manner of a boat turned upside downwards. Some of the Pythagoreans say, that the splendor arises from the earth, its obstruction from the Antichthon (or counter-earth). Some of the later philosophers, that there is such a distribution of the lunar flame, that it gradually and in a just order burns until it be full moon; in like manner, that this fire decays by degrees, until its conjunction with the sun totally extinguisheth it. Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and all the mathematicians agree in this, that the obscurity with which the moon is every month affected ariseth from a conjunction with the sun, by whose more resplendent beams she is darkened; and the moon is then eclipsed when she falls upon the shadow of the earth, the earth interposing between the sun
THE Pythagoreans say, that the moon appears to us terraneous, by reason it is inhabited as our earth is, and in it there are animals of a larger size and plants of a rarer beauty than our globe affords; that the animals in their virtue and energy are fifteen degrees superior to ours; that they emit nothing excrementitious; and that the days are fifteen times longer. Anaxagoras, that the reason of the inequality ariseth from the commixture of things earthy and cold; and that fiery and caliginous matter is jumbled together, whereby the moon is said to be a star of a counterfeit aspect. The Stoics, that by reason of the diversity of her substance the composition of her body is subject to corruption.
EMPEDOCLES affirms, that the distance of the moon from the sun is double her remoteness from the earth. The mathematicians, that her distance from the sun is eighteen times her distance from the earth. Eratosthenes, that the sun is remote from the earth seven hundred and eighty thousand furlongs.
THE year of Saturn is completed when he has had his circulation in the space of thirty solar years; of Jupiter
IN my two precedent treatises having in due order taken a compendious view and given an account of the celestial bodies, and of the moon which divides between them and the terrestrial, I must now convert my pen to discourse in this third book of Meteors, which are beings above the earth and below the moon, and are extended to the site and position of the earth, which is supposed to be the centre of the sphere of this world; and from thence will I take my beginning.
IT is a cloudy circle, which continually appears in the air, and by reason of the whiteness of its colors is called the galaxy, or the milky way. Some of the Pythagoreans say that, when Phaëton set the world on fire, a star falling from its own place in its circular passage through the region caused an inflammation. Others say that originally it was the first course of the sun; others, that it is an
SOME of the Pythagoreans say, that a comet is one of those stars which do not always appear, but after they have run through their determined course, they then rise and are visible to us. Others, that it is the reflection of our sight upon the sun, which gives the resemblance of comets much after the same manner as images are reflected in mirrors. Anaxagoras and Democritus, that two or more stars being in conjunction by their united light make a comet. Aristotle, that it is a fiery coalition of dry exhalations. Strato, that it is the light of the star darting through a thick cloud that hath invested it; this is seen in light shining through lanterns. Heraclides, native of Pontus,
ANAXIMANDER affirms that all these are produced by the wind after this manner: the wind being enclosed by condensed clouds, by reason of its minuteness and lightness it violently endeavors to make its passage; and in breaking through the cloud it gives the noise; and the rending the cloud, because of the blackness of it, gives a resplendent flame. Metrodorus, that when the wind falls upon a cloud whose densing firmly compacts it, by breaking the cloud it causeth a great noise, and by striking and rending the cloud it gives the flame; and in the swiftness of its motion, the sun imparting heat to it, it throws out the thunderbolt. The weak declining of the thunderbolt ends in a violent tempest.
ANAXIMENES thinks that by the air being very much condensed clouds are formed; this air being more compacted, rain is compressed through it; when water in its falling down freezeth, then snow is generated; when it is encompassed with a moist air, it is hail. Metrodorus, that a cloud is composed of a watery exhalation carried into a higher place. Epicurus, that they are made of vapors; and that hail and rain are formed in a round figure, being in their long descent pressed upon by the circumambient air.
THOSE things which affect the air in the superior places of it are of two sorts. Some have a real subsistence, such
Plato says, that men admiring it feigned that it took origination from one Thaumas, which word signifies admiration. Homer says:
Others therefore fabled that the bow hath a head like a bull, by which it swallows up rivers.
+But what is the cause of the rainbow? It is evident that what apparent things we see come to our eyes in right or in crooked lines, or by reflection: these last are incorporeal and to sense obscure, but to reason they are obvious. Those which are seen in right lines are those which we see through the air or horn or transparent stones, for all the parts of these things are very fine and tenuious; but those which appear in crooked lines are in water, the thickness of the water presenting them bended to our sight. This is the reason that oars in themselves straight, when put into the sea, appear to us crooked. The third manner of our seeing is by reflection, and this is perspicuous by mirrors. After this third sort the rainbow is affected. We conceive it is a moist exhalation converted into a cloud, and in a short space it is dissolved into small and moist drops. The sun declining towards the west, it will necessarily follow that the whole bow is seen opposite to the sun; for the eye being directed to those drops receives a reflection, and by this means the bow is formed. The eye doth not consider the figure and form, but the color of these drops; the first of which colors is a shining red, the second a purple, the third is blue and green. Let us consider whether the reason of this shining red color be the splendor
Anaximenes thinks the bow is thus formed; the sun casting its splendor upon a thick, black, and gross cloud, and the rays not being in a capacity to penetrate beyond the superficies. Anaxagoras, that, the solar rays being reflected from a condensed cloud, the sun being placed directly opposite to it forms the bow after the mode of the repercussion of a mirror; after the same manner he assigns the natural cause of the Parhelia or mock-suns, which are often seen in Pontus. Metrodorus, that when the sun casts its splendor through a cloud, the cloud gives itself a blue, and the light a red color.
THESE rods and the mock-suns are constituted of a double nature, a real subsistence, and a mere appearance;— of a real subsistence, because the clouds are the object of our eyes; of a mere appearance, for their proper color is not seen, but that which is adventitious. The like affections, natural and. adventitious, in all such things do happen.
ANAXIMANDER believes that wind is a fluid air, the sun putting into motion or melting the moist subtle parts of it. The Stoics, that all winds are a flowing air, and from the diversity of the regions whence they have their origin receive their denomination; as, from darkness and the west the western wind ; from the sun and its rising the eastern; from the north the northern, and from the south the southern winds. Metrodorus, that moist vapors heated by the sun are the cause of the impetuousness of violent winds. The Etesian, or those winds which annually commence about the rising of the Little Dog, the air about the northern pole being more compacted, blow vehemently following the sun when he returns from the summer solstice.
EMPEDOCLES and the Stoics believe that winter is caused by the thickness of the air prevailing and mounting upwards; and summer by fire, it falling downwards.
+This description being given by me of Meteors, or those things that are above us, I must pass to those things which are terrestrial.
THALES and his followers say that there is but one earth. Hicetes the Pythagorean, that there are two earths, this
THALES, the Stoics, and their followers say that the earth is globular. Anaximander, that it resembles a smooth stony pillar. Anaximenes, that it hath the shape of a table. Leucippus, of a drum. Democritus, that it is like a quoit in its surface, and hollow in the middle.
THE disciples of Thales say that the earth is the centre of the universe. Xenophanes, that it is first, being rooted in the infinite space. Philolaus the Pythagorean gives to fire the middle place, and this is the hearth-fire of the universe; the second place to the Antichthon; the third to that earth which we inhabit, which is seated in opposition unto and whirled about the opposite,—which is the reason that those which inhabit that earth cannot be seen by us. Parmenides was the first that confined the habitable world to the two solstitial (or temperate) zones.
LEUCIPPUS affirms that the earth vergeth towards the southern parts, by reason of the thinness and fineness that
MOST of the philosophers say that the earth remains fixed in the same place. Philolaus the Pythagorean, that it is moved about the element of fire, in an oblique circle, after the same manner of motion that the sun and moon have. Heraclides of Pontus and Ecphantus the Pythagorean assign a motion to the earth, but not progressive, but after the manner of a wheel being carried on its own axis ; thus the earth (they say) turns itself upon its own centre from west to east. Democritus, that when the earth was first formed it had a motion, the parts of it being small and light; but in process of time the parts of it were condensed, so that by its own weight it was poised and fixed.
PYTHAGORAS says that, as the celestial sphere is distributed into five zones, into the same number is the terrestrial; which zones are the arctic and antarctic, the summer and winter tropics (or temperate zones), and
THALES and Democritus assign the cause of earthquakes to water. The Stoics say that it is a moist vapor contained in the earth, making an irruption into the air, that makes the earthquake. Anaximenes, that the dryness and rarety of the earth are the cause of earthquakes, the one of which is produced by extreme drought, the other by immoderate showers. Anaxagoras, that the air endeavoring to make a passage out of the earth, meeting with a thick superficies, is not able to force its way, and so shakes the circumambient earth with a trembling. Aristotle, that a cold vapor encompassing every part of the earth prohibits the evacuation of vapors; for those which are hot, being in themselves light, endeavor to force a passage upwards, by which means the dry exhalations, being left in the earth, use their utmost endeavor to make a passage out, and being wedged in, they suffer various circumvolutions and shake the earth. Metrodorus, that whatsoever is in its own place is incapable of notion, except it be pressed upon or drawn by the operation of another body; the earth being so seated cannot naturally be removed, yet divers parts and places of the earth may move one upon another. Parmenides and Democritus, that the earth being so equally poised hath no sufficient cause why it should incline rather to one side than to the other; so that it may be shaken, but cannot be removed. Anaximenes, that the earth by reason of its latitude is borne
ANAXIMANDER affirms that the sea is the remainder of the primogenial humidity, the greatest part of which being dried up by the fire, the influence of the great heat altered its quality. Anaxagoras, that in the beginning water did not flow, but was as a standing pool; and that it was burnt by the motion of the sun about it, by which the oily part of the water being exhaled, the residue became salt and bitter. Empedocles, that the sea is the sweat of the earth burnt by the sun. Antiphon, that the sweat of that which was hot was separated from the other parts which were moist; these by seething and boiling became bitter, as happens in all sweats. Metrodorus, that the sea was strained through the earth, and retained some part of the
ARISTOTLE and Heraclides say, they proceed from the sun, which moves and whirls about the winds; and these falling with a violence upon the Atlantic, it is pressed and swells by them, by which means the sea flows; and their impression ceasing, the sea retracts, hence they ebb. Pytheas the Massilian, that the fulness of the moon gives the flow, the wane the ebb. Plato attributes it all to a certain oscillation of the sea, which by means of a mouth or orifice causes the alternate ebb and flow; and by this means the seas do rise and flow contrarily. Timaeus believes that those rivers which fall from the mountains of the Celtic Gaul into the Atlantic produce a tide. For upon their entering upon that sea, they violently press upon it, and so cause the flow; but they disemboguing themselves, there is a cessation of the impetuousness, by which means the ebb is produced. Seleucus the mathematician attributes a motion to the earth; and thus he pronounceth that the moon in its circumlation meets and repels the earth in its motion; between these two, the earth and the moon, there is a vehement wind raised and intercepted, which rushes upon the Atlantic Ocean, and gives us a probable argument that it is the cause the sea is troubled and moved.
THE halo or circle is thus formed. A thick and dark air intervening between the moon or any other star and our eye, by which means our sight is dilated and reflected. when now our sight is incident upon the outward circumference of the orb of that star, there presently seems a circle to appear. This circle thus appearing is called the halo; and there is constantly such a circle seen by us, when such a density of sight happens.
HAVING taken a survey of the general parts of the world, I will take a view of the particular members of it.
THALES conjectures that the Etesian or anniversary northern winds blowing strongly against Egypt heighten the swelling of the Nile, the mouth of that river being obstructed by the force of the sea rushing into it. Euthymenes the Massilian concludes that the Nile is filled by the ocean and that sea which is outward from it, this being naturally sweet. Anaxagoras, that the snow in Ethiopia which is frozen in winter is melted in summer, and this makes the inundation. Democritus, that the snows which are in the northern climates when the sun enters the summer solstice are dissolved and diffused; from those vapors clouds are compacted, and these are forcibly driven by the
THALES first pronounced that the soul is that being which is in a perpetual motion, or that whose motion proceeds from itself. Pythagoras, that it is a number moving itself; he takes a number to be the same thing with a mind. Plato, that it is an intellectual substance moving itself, and that motion is in a numerical harmony. Aristotle, that it is the first actuality (
ALL those that have been named by me do affirm that the soul itself is incorporeal, and by its own nature is in a perpetual motion, and in its own essence is an intelligent substance, and the actuality of a natural organical body which has life. The followers of Anaxagoras, that it is airy and a body. The Stoics, that it is a hot breath. Democritus, that it is a fiery composition of things which are perceptible by reason, the same having their forms spherical and without an inflaming faculty; and it is a body. Epicurus, that it is constituted of four qualities, of a fiery quality, of an aerial quality, a pneumatical, and of a fourth quality which hath no name, but it contains the virtue of the sense. Heraclitus, that the soul of the world is the exhalation which proceeds from the moist parts of it; but the soul of animals, arising from exhalations that are exterior and from those that are within them, is homogeneous to it.
PLATO and Pythagoras, according to their former account distribute the soul into two parts, the rational and irrational. By a more accurate and strict account the soul is branched into three parts; they divide the unreasonable part into the concupiscible and the irascible. The Stoics say the soul is constituted of eight parts; five of which are the senses, hearing, seeing, tasting, touching, smelling, the sixth is the faculty of speaking, the seventh of generating, the eighth of commanding; this is the principal of all, by which all the other are guided and ordered in their
PLATO and Democritus place its residence in the whole head. Strato, in that part of the forehead where the eyebrows are separated. Erasistratus, in the Epikranis, or membrane which involves the brain. Herophilus, in that sinus of the brain which is the basis of it. Parmenides, in the whole breast; which opinion is embraced by Epicurus. The Stoics are generally of this opinion, that the seat of the soul is throughout the heart, or in the spirit which is about it. Diogenes, in the arterial ventricle of the heart, which is also filled with vital spirit. Empedocles, in the mass of the blood. There are that say it is in the neck of the heart, others in the pericardium, others in the midriff. Certain of the Neoterics, that the seat of the soul is extended from the head to the diaphragm. Pythagoras, that the animal part of the soul resides in the heart, the intellectual in the head.
PLATO believes that the soul is in perpetual motion, but that the mind is immovable with respect to motion from
PLATO and Pythagoras say that the soul is immortal; when it departs out of the body, it retreats to the soul of the world, which is a being of the same nature with it. The Stoics, when the souls leave the bodies, they are carried to divers places; the souls of the unlearned and ignorant descend to the coagmentation of earthly things, but the learned and vigorous endure till the general fire. Epicurus and Democritus, the soul is mortal, and it perisheth with the body. Plato and Pythagoras, that part of the soul of man which is rational is eternal; for though it be not God, yet it is the product of an eternal Deity; but that part of the soul which is divested of reason dies.
THE Stoics give this definition of sense: Sense is the apprehension or comprehension of an object by means of an organ. There are several ways of expressing what sense is; it is either a habit, a faculty, an operation, or an imagination which apprehends by means of an organ of sense,—and also the eighth principal thing, from whence the senses are derived. The instruments of sense are intelligent spirits, which from the said commanding part reach unto all the organs of the body. Epicurus,
THE Stoics say that what the senses represent is true; what the imagination, is partly false, partly true. Epicurus, that every impression which either the sense or fancy gives us is true, but of those things that fall under the account of opinion, some are true, some false: sense gives us a false representation of those things only which are the objects of our understanding; but the fancy gives us a double error, both of things sensible and things intellectual. Empedocles and Heraclides, that the senses perceive by a just accommodation of the pores in every case; every thing that is perceived by the sense being congruously adapted to its proper organ.
THE Stoics say that there are five senses properly so called, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching.
THE Stoics affirm that every man, as soon as he is born, has the principal and commanding part of his soul, which is in him like a sheet of writing-paper, to which he commits all his notions. The first manner of his inscribing is by denoting those notions which flow from the senses. Suppose it be of a thing that is white; when the present sense of it is vanished, there is yet retained the remembrance; when many memorative notions of the same similitude do concur, then he is said to have an experience; for experience is nothing else but the abundance of notions that are of the same form met together. Some of these notions are naturally begotten according to the aforesaid manner, without the assistance of art; the others are produced by discipline, learning, and industry; these only are properly called notions, the others are prenotions. But reason, which gives us the denomination of rational, is completed by prenotions in the first seven years. The conception of the mind is the vision that the intelligence of a rational animal hath received; when that vision falls upon the rational soul, then it is called the conception of the mind, for it hath derived its name from
CHRYSIPPUS affirms, these four are different one from another. Imagination (he says) is that passion raised in the soul which discovers itself and that which was the efficient of it; for example, after the eye hath looked upon a thing that is white, the sight of which produceth in the mind a certain impression, this gives us reason to conclude that the object of this impression is white, which affecteth us. So is it with touching and smelling.
+Phantasy or imagination is denominated from
These rave as frantic persons, they see nothing, and yet imagine they see. Thence Electra thus returns to him:
After the same manner Theoclymenus in Homer.
DEMOCRITUS and Epicurus suppose that sight is caused by the insinuation of little images into the visive organ, and by the entrance of certain rays which return to the eye after striking upon the object. Empedocles supposes that images are mixed with the rays of the eye; these he styles the rays of images. Hipparchus, that the visual rays extend from both the eyes to the superficies of bodies, and give to the sight the apprehension of those same bodies, after the same manner in which the hand touching the extremity of bodies gives the sense of feeling. Plato, that the sight is the splendor of united rays; there is a light which reaches some distance from the eyes into a congruous air, and there is likewise a light emitted from bodies, which meets and is joined with the fiery visual light in the intermediate air (which is liquid and mutable); and the conjunction of these rays gives the sense of seeing. This is Plato's corradiancy, or splendor of united rays.
EMPEDOCLES says that these images are caused by certain effluvias which, meeting together and insisting upon the superficies of the mirror, are perfected by that fiery quality emitted by the said mirror, which transmutes withal the air that surrounds it. Democritus and Epicurus, that the specular appearances are formed by the subsistence of the images which flow from our eyes; these fall upon the mirror and remain, while the light rebounds to the eye. The followers of Pythagoras explain it by the reflection of the sight; for our sight being extended (as it were) to the brass, and meeting with the smooth dense surface thereof it is struck back, and caused to return upon itself: the same appears in the hand, when it is stretched out and then brought back again to the shoulder. Any one may apply these instances to explain the manner of seeing.
THE Stoics say that darkness is seen by us, for out of our eyes there issues out some light into it; and our eyes do not impose upon us, for they really perceive there is darkness. Chrysippus says that we see darkness by the striking of the intermediate air; for the visual spirits which proceed from the principal part of the soul and reach to the ball of the eye pierce this air, which, after they have made those strokes upon it, presses conically on the surrounding air, where this is homogeneous. For from the eyes those rays are poured forth which are neither black nor cloudy. Upon this account darkness is visible to us.
EMPEDOCLES says that hearing is formed by the insidency of the air upon the spiral, which it is said hangs within the ear as a bell, and is beat upon by the air. Alcmaeon, that the vacuity that is within the ear makes us to have the sense of hearing, for the air forcing a vacuum gives the sound; every inanity affords a ringing. Diogenes, the air which is in the head, being struck upon by the voice, gives the hearing. Plato and his followers, the air which exists in the head being struck upon, is reflected to the principal part of the soul, and this causeth the sense of hearing.
ALCMAEON believes that the principal part of the soul, residing in the brain, draws to itself odors by respiration. Empedocles, that scents insert themselves into the breathing of the lungs; for, when there is a great difficulty in breathing, odors are not perceived by reason of the sharpness; and this we experience in those who have the defluxion of rheum.
ALCMAEON says that a moist warmth in the tongue, joined with the softness of it, gives the difference of taste. Diogenes, that by the softness and sponginess of the tongue, and because the veins of the body are joined in it, tastes
PLATO thus defines a voice,—that it is a breath drawn by the mind through the mouth, and a blow given to the air and through the ear, brain, and blood transmitted to the soul. Voice is abusively attributed to irrational and inanimate beings; thus we improperly call the neighing of horses or any other sound by the name of voice. But properly a voice (
Democritus, that the air is broken into bodies of similar configuration, and these are rolled up and down with the fragments of the voice; as it is proverbially said, One daw lights with another, or, God always brings like to like. Thus we see upon the shore, that stones like to one another are found in the same place, in one place the long-shaped, in another the round are seen. So in sieves, things that are of the same form meet together, but those that are different are divided; as pulse and beans falling from the same sieve are separated one from another. To this it may be objected: How can some fragments of air fill a theatre in
PYTHAGORAS, Plato, and Aristotle say that the voice is incorporeal; for it is not the air that makes the voice, but the figure which compasseth the air and its superficies, having received a stroke, give the voice. But every superficies of itself is incorporeal. True it is that it moveth with the body, but of itself it hath no body; as we perceive in a staff that is bended, the matter only admits of an inflection, while the superficies doth not. According to the Stoics, a voice is corporeal, since every thing that is an agent or operates is a body; a voice acts and operates, for we hear it and are sensible of it; for it falls and makes an impression on the ear, as a seal of a ring gives its similitude upon the wax. Moreover, every thing that creates a delight or molestation is a body; harmonious music affects with delight, but discord is tiresome. And every thing that is moved is a body; and the voice moves, and having its illapse upon smooth places is reflected, as when a ball is cast against a wall it rebounds. A voice spoken in the
THE Stoics say that the highest part of the soul is the commanding part of it: this is the cause of sense, imagination, consents, and desires; and this we call the rational part. From this principal and commander there are produced seven parts of the soul, which are spread through the body, as the seven arms in a polypus. Of these seven parts, five are assigned to the senses, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching. Sight is a spirit which is extended from the commanding part to the eyes; hearing is that spirit which from the principal reacheth to the ears ; smelling a spirit drawn from the principal to the nostrils; tasting a spirit extended from the principal to the tongue; touching is a spirit which from the principal is drawn to the extremity of those bodies which are obnoxious to a sensible touch. Of the rest, the one called the spermatical is a spirit which reacheth from the principal to the generating vessels; the other, which is the vocal and termed the voice, is a spirit extended from the principal to the throat, tongue, and other proper organs of speaking. And this principal part itself hath that place in our spherical head which God hath in the world.
EMPEDOCLES thinks, that the first breath the first animal drew was when the moisture in unborn infants was separated,
Asclepiades supposeth the lungs to be in the manner of a tunnel, and maketh the cause of breathing to be the fineness of the inward parts of the breast; for thither the outward air which is more gross hastens, but is forced backward, the breast not being capable either to receive or want it. But there being always some of the more tenuous parts of the air left, so that all of it is not exploded, to that which there remains the more ponderous external air with equal violence is forced; and this he compares to cupping-glasses. All spontaneous breathings are formed by the contracting of the smaller pores of the lungs, and to the closing up of the pipes in the neck; for these are at our command.
+Herophilus attributes a moving faculty to the nerves, arteries, and muscles, but believes that the lungs are affected only with a natural desire of enlarging and contracting themselves. Farther, there is the first operation of the lungs by attraction of the outward air, which is drawn in because of the abundance of the external air. Next to this, there is a second natural appetite of the lungs; the breast, pouring in upon itself the breath, and being filled, is no longer able to make an attraction, and throws the superfluity
THE Stoics say that all the passions are seated in those parts of the body which are affected, the senses have their residence in the commanding part of the soul. Epicurus, that all the passions and all the senses are in those parts which are affected, but the commanding part is subject to no passion. Strato, that all the passions and senses of the soul are in the rational or commanding part of it, and are not fixed in those places which are affected; for in this part patience takes its residence, and this is apparent in terrible and dolorous things, as also in timorous and valiant persons.
PLATO and the Stoics introduce divination as a divine enthusiasm, the soul itself being of a divine constitution, and this prophetic faculty being an inspiration, or an illapse of the divine knowledge into man; and sc likewise they explain interpretation by dreams. And these same admit many divisions of the art of divination. Xenophanes and Epicurus utterly refuse any such art of foretelling future contingencies. Pythagoras rejects all manner of divination which is by sacrifices. Aristotle and Dicaearchus admit only these two kinds of it, a fury by a divine inspiration, and dreams; they deny the immortality of the soul, yet they affirm that the mind of man hath a participation of something that is divine.
DEMOCRITUS says that dreams are formed by the illapse of adventitious representations. Strato, that the irrational part of the soul in sleep becoming more sensible is moved by the rational part of it. Herophilus, that dreams which are caused by divine instinct have a necessary cause; but dreams which have their origin from a natural cause arise from the soul's forming within itself the images of those things which are convenient for it, and which will happen; those dreams which are of a constitution mixed of both these have their origin from the fortuitous appulse of images, as when we see those things which please us; thus it happens many times to those persons who in their sleep imagine they embrace their mistresses.
ARISTOTLE says, that seed is that thing which contains in itself a power of moving, whereby it is enabled to produce a being like unto that from whence it was emitted. Pythagoras, that seed is the sediment of that which nourisheth us, the froth of the purest blood, of the same nature as the blood and marrow of our bodies. Alcmaeon, that it is a part of the brain. Plato, that it is the deflux of the spinal marrow. Epicurus, that it is a fragment torn from the body and soul. Democritus, that it proceeds from all the parts of the body, and chiefly from the principal parts. as the flesh and muscles.
LEUCIPPUS and Zeno say, that it is a body and a fragment of the soul. Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, that the spermatic faculty is incorporeal, as the mind is which moves the body; but the effused matter is corporeal. Strato and Democritus, that the very power is a body; for it is like spirit.
PYTHAGORAS, Epicurus, and Democritus say, that women have a seminal projection, but their spermatic vessels are inverted; and it is this that makes them have a venereal appetite. Aristotle and Plato, that they emit a material moisture, as sweat we see produced by exercise and labor; but that moisture has no spermatic power. Hippo, that
ARISTOTLE says, that conception takes place when the womb is drawn forward by the natural purgation, and the monthly terms attract from the whole bulk part of the purest blood, and this is met by the genital seed of man. On the contrary, there is a failure by the impurity and inflation of the womb, by the passions of fear and grief, by the weakness of women, or the decay of strength in men.
EMPEDOCLES affirms, that heat and cold give the difference in the generation of males and females. Hence is it, as histories acquaint us, that the first men had their original from the earth in the eastern and southern parts, and the first females in the northern parts thereof. Parmenides is of opinion perfectly contrariant. He affirms that men first sprouted out of the northern earth, for their bodies are more dense; women out of the southern, for theirs are more rare and fine. Hippo, that the more compacted and strong sperm, and the more fluid and weak, discriminate the sexes. Anaxagoras and Parmenides, that the seed of the man is naturally cast from his right side into the right side of the womb, or from the left side of
EMPEDOCLES believes that monsters receive their origination from the abundance or defect of seed, or from its division into parts which are superabundant, or from some perturbation in the motion, or else that there is an error by a lapse into an improper receptacle; and thus he presumes he hath given all the causes of monstrous conceptions. Strato, that it comes from addition, subtraction, or transposition of the seed, or the distension or inflation of the matrix. And some physicians say that the matrix suffers distortion, being distended with wind.
DIOCLES the physician says that either no genital sperm is projected, or, if there be, it is in a less quantity than
EMPEDOCLES affirms, that the superabundance of sperm and the division of it causes the bringing forth of two or three infants. Asclepiades, that it is performed from the excellent quality of the sperm, after the manner that from the root of one barleycorn two or three stalks do grow; sperm that is of this quality is the most prolific. Erasistratus, that superfetation may happen to women as to irrational creatures; for, if the womb be well purged and very clean, then there may be divers births. The Stoics, that it ariseth from the various receptacles that are in the womb: when the seed illapses into the first and second of them at once, then there are conceptions upon conception; and so two or three infants are born.
EMPEDOCLES says, that the similitude of children to their parents proceeds from the vigorous prevalency of the
THE greatest part of physicians affirm, that this happens casually and fortuitously; for, when the sperm of the man and woman is too much refrigerated, then children carry a dissimilitude to their parents. Empedocles, that a woman's imagination when she conceives impresses a shape upon the infant; for women have been enamored with images and statues, and the children which were born of them gave their similitudes. The Stoics, that the resemblances flow from the sympathy and consent of minds, by the insertion of effluvias and rays, not of images or pictures.
THE physicians maintain, that sterility in women may arise from the womb; for if it be after any ways thus
ALCMAEON says, that the barrenness of the male mules ariseth from the thinness of the genital sperm, that is, the seed is too chill; the female mules are barren, for their womb does not open its mouth (as he expresses it). Empedocles, the matrix of the mule is so small, so depressed, so narrow, so invertedly growing to the belly, that the sperm cannot be regularly cast into it, and if it could, there would be no capacity to receive it. Diocles concurs in this opinion with him; for, saith he, in our anatomical dissection of mules we have seen that their matrices are of such configurations; and it is possible that there may be the same reason why some women are barren.
PLATO says, that the embryo is an animal; for, being contained in the mother's womb, motion and aliment are imparted to it. The Stoics say that it is not an animal, but to be accounted part of the mother's belly; like as we see the fruit of trees is esteemed part of the trees, until it be full ripe; then it falls and ceaseth to belong to the tree; and thus it is with the embryo. Empedocles, that the embryo is not an animal, yet whilst it remains in the belly it breathes. The first breath that it draws as an animal is when the infant is newly born; then the child having its moisture separated, the extraneous air making an entrance into the empty places, a respiration is caused in the infant by the empty vessels receiving of it. Diogenes, that infants are bred in the matrix inanimate, yet they have a natural heat; but presently, when the infant is cast into the open air, its heat draws air into the lungs, and so it becomes an animal. Herophilus acknowledgeth that infants have a natural, but not a respiratory motion, and that the nerves are the cause of that motion; that then they become animals, when being first born they suck in something of the air.
DEMOCRITUS and Epicurus say, that the embryos in the womb receive their aliment by the mouth, for we perceive, as soon as ever the infant is born, it applies its mouth to the breast; in the wombs of women (our understanding concludes) there are little dugs, and the embryos have small mouths by which they receive their nutriment. The
THE Stoics believe that the greater part is formed at the same time. Aristotle, as the keel of a ship is first made, so the first part that is formed is the loins. Alcmaeon, the head, for that is the commanding and the principal part of the body. The physicians, the heart, in which are the veins and arteries. Some think the great toe is first formed; others affirm the navel.
EMPEDOCLES says, that when the human race took first its original from the earth, the sun was so slow in its motion that then one day in its length was equal to ten months, as now they are; in process of time one day became as long as seven months are; and there is the reason that those infants which are born at the end of seven months or ten months are born alive, the course of nature so disposing that the infant shall be brought to maturity in one day after that night in which it is begotten. Timaeus says, that we count not ten months but nine, by reason that we reckon the first conception from the retention
Aristotle and Hippocrates, that if the womb is grown full in seven months, then the child falls from the mother and is born alive; but if it falls from her but is not properly nourished, the navel being weak on account of the heavy burden of the infant, then it doth not thrive; but if the infant continues nine months in the womb, and then breaks forth from the woman, it is entire and perfect. Polybus, that a hundred and eighty-two days and a half suffice for the bringing forth of a living child; that is, six months, in which space of time the sun moves from one tropic to the other; and this is called seven months, for the days which are overplus in the sixth are accounted to give the seventh month. Those children which are born in the eighth month cannot live, for, the infant then falling from the womb, the navel, which is the cause of nourishment, is thereby too much stretched; and is the reason that the infant languishes and hath an atrophy. The astrologers, that eight months are enemies to every birth, seven are friends and kind to it. The signs of the zodiac are then enemies, when they fall upon those stars which are lords of houses; whatever infant is then born will have a life short and unfortunate. Those signs of the zodiac which are malevolent and injurious to generation are those pairs of which the last is reckoned the eighth from the first, as the first and the eighth, the second
THOSE philosophers who entertain the opinion that the world had an original do likewise assert that all animals are generated and corruptible. The followers of Epicurus, who gives an eternity to the world, affirm the generation of animals ariseth from the various permutation of parts mutually among themselves, for they are parts of this world. With them Anaxagoras and Euripides concur:
Anaximander's opinion is, that the first animals were generated in moisture, and were enclosed in bark on which thorns grew; but in process of time they came upon dry land, and this thorny bark with which they were covered being broken, they lived for a short space of time. Empedocles says, that the first generation of animals and plants was by no means completed, for the parts were disjoined and would not admit of a union; the second preparation for their being generated was when their parts were united and appeared in the form of images; the third preparation for generation was when their parts mutually amongst themselves gave a being to one another; the fourth, when there was no longer a mixture of similar elements (like earth and water), but a union of animals among themselves,—in some the nourishment being made
THERE is a certain treatise of Aristotle, in which animals are distributed into four kinds, terrestrial, aqueous, fowl, and heavenly; and he calls the stars and the world also animals, yea, and God himself he defines to be an animal endowed with reason and immortal. Democritus and Epicurus esteem all animals rational which have their residence in the heavens. Anaxagoras says that animals have only that reason which is operative, but not that which is passive, which is justly styled the interpreter of the mind, and is like the mind itself. Pythagoras and Plato, that the souls of all those who are styled brutes are rational; but by the evil constitution of their bodies, and because they have a want of a discoursive faculty, they do not act rationally. This is manifested in apes and dogs, which have voice but not speech. Diogenes, that this sort of animals are partakers of intelligence and air, but by reason of the density in some parts of them, and by the superfluity of moisture in others, they enjoy neither understanding nor sense; but they are affected as madmen are, the commanding rational part being defectuous and impeached.
EMPEDOCLES believes, that the joints of men begin to be formed from the thirty-sixth day, and their shape is completed in the nine and fortieth. Asclepiades, that male embryos, by reason of a greater natural heat, have their joints begun to be formed in the twenty-sixth day,— many even sooner,—and that they are completed in all their parts on the fiftieth day; the parts of the females are articulated in two months, but by the defect of heat are not consummated till the fourth; but the members of brutes are completed at various times, according to the commixture of the elements of which they consist.
EMPEDOCLES says, that the fleshy parts of us are constituted by the contemperation of the four elements in us; earth and fire mixed with a double proportion of water make the nerves; but when it happens that the nerves are refrigerated where they meet the air, then the nails are made; the bones are produced by two parts of water and the same of air, with four parts of fire and the same of earth, duly mixed together; sweat and tears flow from the liquefaction of these bodies of ours.
ALCMAEON says, that sleep is caused when the blood retreats to the concourse of the veins, but when the blood
HERACLITUS and the Stoics say, that men begin their completeness when the second septenary of years begins, about which time the seminal serum is emitted. Trees first begin their perfection when they give their seeds; till then they are immature, imperfect, and unfruitful. After the same manner a man is completed in the second septenary of years, and is capable of learning what is good and evil, and of discipline therein.
ARISTOTLE'S opinion is, that both the soul and body sleep; and this proceeds from the moisture in the breast, which doth steam and arise in the manner of a vapor into the
PLATO and Empedocles believe, that plants are animals, and are informed with a soul; of this there are clear arguments, for they have tossing and shaking, and their branches are extended; when the woodmen bend them they yield, but they return to their former straightness and strength again when they are let loose, and even draw up weights that are laid upon them. Aristotle doth grant that they live, but not that they are animals; for animals are affected with appetite, sense, and reason. The Stoics and Epicureans deny that they are informed with a soul; by reason that all sorts of animals have either sense, appetite, or reason; but plants move fortuitously, and not by means of any soul. Empedocles, that the first of all animals were trees, and they sprang from the earth before the sun in its glory enriched the world, and before day and night
EMPEDOCLES believes, that animals are nourished by the remaining in them of that which is proper to their own nature; they are augmented by the application of heat; and the subtraction of either of these makes them to languish and decay. The stature of men in this present age, if compared with the magnitude of those men which were first produced, is no other than a mere infancy.
EMPEDOCLES says that the want of those elements which compose animals gives to them appetite, and pleasures
ERASISTRATUS gives this definition of a fever: A fever is a quick motion of blood, not produced by our consent, which enters into the vessels proper unto the vital spirits. This we see in the sea; it is in a serene calm when nothing disturbs it, but is in motion when a violent preternatural wind blows upon it, and then it rageth and is circled with waves. After this manner it is in the body of man; when the blood is in a nimble agitation, then it falls upon those vessels in which the spirits are, and there being in an extraordinary heat, it fires the whole body. The opinion that a fever is an appendix to a preceding affection pleaseth him. Diodes proceeds after this manner: Those things which are internal and latent are manifested by those which externally break forth and appear; and it is clear to us that a fever is annexed to certain outward affections, for example, to wounds, inflaming tumors, inguinary abscesses.
ALCMAEON says that the preserver of health is an equal proportion of the qualities of heat, moisture, cold, dryness, bitterness, sweetness, and the other qualities; on the contrary, the prevailing empire of one above the rest is the cause of diseases and author of destruction. The efficient