diff --git a/data/tlg0086/tlg034/tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1.xml b/data/tlg0086/tlg034/tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1.xml index ab8eb233b..70aa7ca47 100644 --- a/data/tlg0086/tlg034/tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1.xml +++ b/data/tlg0086/tlg034/tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1.xml @@ -128,13 +128,13 @@ added cvs log keyword Poetics

LetThe text here printed is based on Vahlen's - third edition(Leipzig, - 1885), and the chief deviations from it are noted at the foot of each + third edition(Leipzig, + 1885), and the chief deviations from it are noted at the foot of each page. The prime source of all existing texts of the Poetics is the eleventh century Paris manuscript, No. 1741, designated as Ac. To the manuscripts of the Renaissance few, except Dr. Margoliouth, now assign any independent value, but they contain useful suggestions for the correction of obvious errors and defects - in Ac. These are here designated “copies.”V. stands for + in Ac. These are here designated “copies.”V. stands for Vahlen's third edition, and By. for the late Professor Ingram Bywater, who has earned the gratitude and admiration of all students of the Poetics by his services both to the text and to its interpretation. Then there is the Arabic @@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ added cvs log keyword first with first principles. Epic poetry, then, and the poetry of tragic drama, and, moreover, comedy and dithyrambic poetry, and most flute-playing and harp-playing, these, speaking generally, may all be said to be "representations of life."The explanation of MI/MHSIS, as Aristotle uses the word, demands a treatise; all - that a footnote can say is this:—Life "presents" to the artist the + that a footnote can say is this:—Life "presents" to the artist the phenomena of sense, which the artist "re-presents" in his own medium, giving coherence, designing a pattern. That this is true not only of drama and fiction but also of instrumental music ("most flute-playing and harp-playing") was more @@ -166,8 +166,8 @@ added cvs log keyword in representing different objects or in representing objects not in the same way but in a different manner. For just as by the use both of color and form people represent many objects, making likenesses of - them—some having a - knowledge of art and some working empirically—and just as others use the + them—some having a + knowledge of art and some working empirically—and just as others use the human voice; so is it also in the arts which we have mentioned, they all make their representations in rhythm and language and tune, using these means either separately or in combination. For tune and rhythm @@ -187,8 +187,8 @@ added cvs log keyword similar to the mimes of Herondas and the fifteenth Idyll of Theocritus, but in prose. There was a tradition that their mimes suggested to Plato the use of dialogue. and to the Socratic dialogues: nor again supposing a poet were to make his representation in - iambics or elegiacs or any other such metre—except that people attach the - word poet(maker)to the name of the metre and speak of elegiac + iambics or elegiacs or any other such metre—except that people attach the + word poet(maker)to the name of the metre and speak of elegiac poets and of others as epic poets. Thus they do not call them poets in virtue of their representation but apply the name indiscriminately in virtue of the metre. For if people publish medical or scientific treatises in @@ -205,7 +205,7 @@ added cvs log keyword as either drama or epic. Cf. Aristot. Poet. 24.11. On this point the distinctions thus made may suffice. There are certain arts which employ all the means which I - have mentioned, such as rhythm and tune and metre—dithyrambic and "nomic" + have mentioned, such as rhythm and tune and metre—dithyrambic and "nomic" poetry,The traditional definition is that the Dithyramb was sung to a flute accompaniment by a chorus in honor of Dionysus; and that the Nome was a solo sung to a harp accompaniment in honor of Apollo, @@ -217,13 +217,13 @@ added cvs log keyword These differences then in the various arts I call the means of representation. Since living personsLiterally "men doing or experiencing something." are the objects of representation, these must necessarily be - either good men or inferior—thus only are characters normally - distinguished, since ethical differences depend upon vice and virtue—that + either good men or inferior—thus only are characters normally + distinguished, since ethical differences depend upon vice and virtue—that is to say either better than ourselves or worse or much what we are. It is the same with painters. Polygnotus depicted men as better than they are and Pauson worse, while Dionysius made likenesses.Polygnotus's portraits were in the grand style and - yet expressive of character(cf. Aristot. - Poet. 6.15): Aristophanes aIludes to a Pauson as a + yet expressive of character(cf. Aristot. + Poet. 6.15): Aristophanes aIludes to a Pauson as a "perfectly wicked caricaturist": Dionysius of Colophon earned the name of "the man-painter" because he always painted men and presumably made "good likenesses." Clearly each of the above mentioned @@ -247,8 +247,8 @@ added cvs log keyword to-day, the former as better. A third difference in these arts is the manner in which one may represent each of these objects. For in representing the same objects by the same means it is possible to proceed either partly by - narrative and partly by assuming a character other than your own—this is - Homer's method—or by remaining yourself without any such change, or else + narrative and partly by assuming a character other than your own—this is + Homer's method—or by remaining yourself without any such change, or else to represent the characters as carrying out the whole action themselves. These, as we said above, are the three differences which form the several species of the art of representation, the means, the objects, and the manner. It follows that in one respect @@ -257,7 +257,7 @@ added cvs log keyword in action and doing things. And that according to some is the reason why they are called "dramas," because they present people as doing"Drama" being derived from DRA=N "to do." things. And for this - reason the Dorians claim as their own both tragedy and comedy—comedy is + reason the Dorians claim as their own both tragedy and comedy—comedy is claimed both by the Megarians here in Greece, who say that it originated in the days of their democracy, and by the Megarians in Sicily,The inhabitants of Megara Hyblaea. for it was from there the poet EpicharmusEpicharmus of Cos @@ -268,9 +268,9 @@ added cvs log keyword fifth century B.C. came, who was much earlier than Chionides and Magnes; and tragedy some of the Peloponnesians claim. Their evidence is the two names. Their name, they say, for suburb - villages is KW=MAI—the Athenians call them - "Demes"—and comedians are so called not from KWMA/ZEIN, "to revel," but because they were turned out of the towns - and went strolling round the villages( KW=MAI). Their word for action, they add, is DRA=N, whereas the Athenian word is PRA/TTEIN. So much then for the differences, their number, and their + villages is KW=MAI—the Athenians call them + "Demes"—and comedians are so called not from KWMA/ZEIN, "to revel," but because they were turned out of the towns + and went strolling round the villages( KW=MAI). Their word for action, they add, is DRA=N, whereas the Athenian word is PRA/TTEIN. So much then for the differences, their number, and their nature. Speaking generally, poetry seems to owe its origin to two particular causes, both natural. From childhood men have an instinct for representation, and in this respect, differs from the other animals @@ -288,9 +288,9 @@ added cvs log keyword for imitation, (2) the natural enjoyment of mimicry by others; or whether these two are combined into one and the second cause is the instinct for tune and rhythm. Obviously this last is an essential cause of - poetry.—for the metres are obviously sections of rhythmse.g., the rhythm of the blacksmith's hammer or of a + poetry.—for the metres are obviously sections of rhythmse.g., the rhythm of the blacksmith's hammer or of a trotting horse is dactylic, but the hexameter is a "section" or slice of that - rhythm; it is cut up into sixes.—and starting with these + rhythm; it is cut up into sixes.—and starting with these instincts men very gradually developed them until they produced poetry out of their improvisations. Poetry then split into two kinds according to the poet's nature. For the more serious poets represented @@ -322,9 +322,9 @@ added cvs log keyword whether tragedy is fully developed by now in all its various species or not, and to criticize it both in itself and in relation to the stage, that is another question. At any rate it originated in - improvisation—both tragedy itself and comedy. The one came from the - preludeBefore the chorus began (or in - pauses between their songs) the leader of the performance would + improvisation—both tragedy itself and comedy. The one came from the + preludeBefore the chorus began (or in + pauses between their songs) the leader of the performance would improvise some appropriate tale or state the theme which they were to elaborate. Thus he was called O( E)CA/RXWN or "the starter," and became in time the first "actor." to the dithyramb and the @@ -356,7 +356,7 @@ added cvs log keyword probably be a long task to go through them in detail. Comedy, as we have said, is a representation of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of the word bad, but the laughable is a species of the base or ugly."Ugly" was to a Greek an equivalent of "bad." The persons in Comedy are - "inferior" (see chapter 2.), but have only one of the many + "inferior" (see chapter 2.), but have only one of the many qualities which make up Ugliness or Badness, viz. the quality of being ludicrous and therefore in some degree contemptible. It consists in some blunder or ugliness @@ -373,8 +373,8 @@ added cvs log keyword themselves paid for and produced their plays. Comedy had already taken certain forms before there is any mention of those who are called its poets. Who introduced masks - or prologues, the number of actors, and so on, is not known. Plot making [Epicharmus and - Phormis]Epicharmus and Phormis, being + or prologues, the number of actors, and so on, is not known. Plot making [Epicharmus and + Phormis]Epicharmus and Phormis, being both early Sicilian "comedians", are appropriate here. Either part of a sentence is lost or an explanatory note has got into the text. originally came from Sicily, and of the Athenian poets CratesFragments of his comedies survive, dating about the middle of the @@ -397,7 +397,7 @@ added cvs log keyword of an actionMargoliouth's phrase "a chapter of life," illuminates the meaning, since PRA=CIS includes what the hero does and what happens to him. (Cf. Aristot. Poet. 2.1 and note.) that is - heroic and complete and of a certain magnitude—by means of language + heroic and complete and of a certain magnitude—by means of language enriched with all kinds of ornament, each used separately in the different parts of the play: it represents men in action and does not use narrative, and through pity and fear it effects relief to these and similar emotions.The sense of "the pity of it "and fear lest such disasters might @@ -413,10 +413,10 @@ added cvs log keyword here the metrical arrangement of the words; and "song making" I use in the full, obvious sense of the word. And since tragedy represents action and is acted by living persons, who must of necessity have - certain qualities of character and thought—for it is these which determine + certain qualities of character and thought—for it is these which determine the quality of an action; indeed thought and character are the natural causes of any action and it is in virtue of these that all men succeed or - fail— it follows then that + fail— it follows then that it is the plot which represents the action. By "plot" I mean here the arrangement of the incidents: "character" is that which determines the quality of the agents, and "thought" appears wherever in the dialogue they put forward an argument or deliver @@ -501,18 +501,18 @@ added cvs log keyword parts must not only be orderly arranged but must also have a certain magnitude of their own; for beauty consists in magnitude and ordered arrangement. From which it follows that neither would a very - small creature be beautiful—for our view of it is almost instantaneous and + small creature be beautiful—for our view of it is almost instantaneous and therefore confusedWith a very small object the duration of our vision is, as it were, so rapid that the parts are invisible; we, therefore, cannot appreciate their proportion and arrangement, in which - beauty consists.—nor a very large one, since being unable to + beauty consists.—nor a very large one, since being unable to view it all at once, we lose the effect of a single whole; for instance, suppose a creature a thousand miles long. As then creatures and other organic structures must have a certain magnitude and yet be easily taken in by the eye, so too with plots: they must have length but must be easily taken in by the memory. The limit of length considered in relation to competitions and productionAI)/SQHSIS is the play's "perception" by an - audience—how much an audience will stand. before an audience + audience—how much an audience will stand. before an audience does not concern this treatise. Had it been the rule to produce a hundred tragedies, the performance would have been regulated by the water clock, as it is said they did once in other days. But as for the @@ -527,7 +527,7 @@ added cvs log keyword single piece of action. It seems therefore that all those poets are wrong who have written a Heracleid or Theseid or other such poems.Aristotle condemns them all, - assuming—or perhaps assured by experience—that their sole + assuming—or perhaps assured by experience—that their sole claim to unity lay in the fact that all the stories in the poem had a common hero. They think that because Heracles was a single individual the plot must for that reason have unity. But @@ -535,8 +535,8 @@ added cvs log keyword either by instinct or from knowledge of his art. For in writing an Odyssey he did not put in all that ever happened to Odysseus, his being wounded on Parnassus, for instance, - or his feigned madness when the host was gathered(these being events - neither of which necessarily or probably led to the other), but he + or his feigned madness when the host was gathered(these being events + neither of which necessarily or probably led to the other), but he constructed his Odyssey round a single action in our sense of the phrase. And the Iliad the same. As then in the other arts of representation a single representation means a representation of a single object, so too the plot being a @@ -548,7 +548,7 @@ added cvs log keyword poet's object is not to tell what actually happened but what could and would happen either probably or inevitably. The difference between a historian and a poet is not that one writes in prose and the - other in verse— indeed the writings of Herodotus could be put into + other in verse— indeed the writings of Herodotus could be put into verse and yet would still be a kind of history, whether written in metre or not. The real difference is this, that one tells what happened and the other what might happen. For this reason poetry is @@ -583,7 +583,7 @@ added cvs log keyword is to be found of course in its religious origin. It was the function of tragedy to interpret and embroider myths. Aristotle never gives this reason, but offers instead tbe unconvincing explanation that tragedians adhered to certain "real" - stories to gain verisimilitude—and yet he has to admit that, since to + stories to gain verisimilitude—and yet he has to admit that, since to many of the auditors these stories were unfamiliar and none the less attractive, dramatists might just as well invent new themes. It is clear, then, from what we have said that the poet must be a "maker" not of verses but of stories, @@ -594,7 +594,7 @@ added cvs log keyword inevitably happen, and it is in virtue of that that he is their "maker." Of "simple"This term is defined in the next chapter. It seems odd to use it before its meaning is explained. Perhaps we - should read A)/LLWN(Tyrwhitt)and translate "of all + should read A)/LLWN(Tyrwhitt)and translate "of all plots." plots and actions the worst are those which are "episodic." By this I mean a plot in which the episodes do not follow each other probably or inevitably. Bad poets write such @@ -608,8 +608,8 @@ added cvs log keyword pity, and this happens most of all when the incidents are unexpected and yet one is a consequence of the other.The logic suffers from ellipse. Plays which fail to exhibit the sequence of cause and effect are - condemned (1) because they lack the unity which befits - tragedy, (2) because they miss that supreme effect of fear or + condemned (1) because they lack the unity which befits + tragedy, (2) because they miss that supreme effect of fear or pity produced by incidents which, though unexpected, are seen to be no mere accident but the inevitable result of what has gone before. For in that way the incidents will @@ -628,16 +628,16 @@ added cvs log keyword difference between what happens propter hoc and post hoc. A "reversal" is a change of the situation into the opposite, as described above,At the end of chapter 7. Vahlen and many other exponents of the Politics confine the meaning of - “reversal” to the situation in which the hero's action has + “reversal” to the situation in which the hero's action has consequences directly opposite to his intention and expectation. There is much to be said for this interpretation, which stresses the irony at the heart of all tragedy. But it is too narrow for Aristotle's theory. All tragedy involves a - change of fortune ( META/BASIS). In a “simple” plot this is - gradual; in a “complex” plot it is catastrophic, a sudden + change of fortune ( META/BASIS). In a “simple” plot this is + gradual; in a “complex” plot it is catastrophic, a sudden revolution of fortune's wheel. In some of the greatest tragedies, but not in all, this is the result of action designed to produce the opposite effect. this change being, moreover, as we are saying, probable or - inevitable— like the man + inevitable— like the man in the Oedipus who came to cheer Oedipus and rid him of his anxiety about his mother by revealing his parentage and changed the whole situation.The messenger for Corinth announces the death of Polybus and Oedipus's succession to the throne. Oedipus, feeling now safe from the prophecy that he would murder @@ -670,7 +670,7 @@ added cvs log keyword the letter, but a separate discovery was needed to make him known to Iphigeneia.Euripides' Iphigeneia in - Tauris—Orestes and Pylades arriving among the + Tauris—Orestes and Pylades arriving among the Tauri are by the custom of the country to be sacrificed to Artemis by her priestess, Iphigeneia. It is agreed that Pylades shall be spared to carry a letter from Iphigeneia to Orestes, whom she supposes to be in Argos. In order that Pylades may deliver the @@ -706,7 +706,7 @@ added cvs log keyword in the construction of a plot, and the means by which the object of tragedy may be achieved. Since then the structure of the best tragedy should be not simple but complexSee chapter 10. and one that represents incidents arousing fear and - pity—for that is peculiar to this form of art—it is obvious to + pity—for that is peculiar to this form of art—it is obvious to begin with that one should not show worthy men passing from good fortune to bad. That does not arouse fear or pity but shocks our feelings. Nor again wicked people passing from bad fortune to good. That is the most untragic of all, having none of the requisite qualities, @@ -714,19 +714,19 @@ added cvs log keyword preference for "poetic justice." or arouse pity or fear. Nor again the passing of a thoroughly bad man from good fortune to bad fortune. Such a structure might satisfy our feelings but it arouses neither pity nor fear, the one being for the man who does not deserve his - misfortune and the other for the man who is like ourselves—pity for the - undeserved misfortune, fear for the man like ourselves—so that the result + misfortune and the other for the man who is like ourselves—pity for the + undeserved misfortune, fear for the man like ourselves—so that the result will arouse neither pity nor fear. There remains then the mean between these. This is the sort of man who is not pre-eminently virtous and just, and yet it is through no badness or villainy of his own that he falls into the fortune, but rather through some flaw in him,Whether Aristotle regards the - “flaw” as intellectual or moral has been hotly discussed. It + “flaw” as intellectual or moral has been hotly discussed. It may cover both senses. The hero must not deserve his misfortune, but he must cause it by making a fatal mistake, an error of judgement, which may well involve some imperfection of character but not such as to make us regard him as - “morally responsible” for the disasters although they are + “morally responsible” for the disasters although they are nevertheless the consequences of the flaw in him, and his wrong decision at a - crisis is the inevitable outcome of his character(cf. Aristot. Poet. 6.24.). he + crisis is the inevitable outcome of his character(cf. Aristot. Poet. 6.24.). he being one of those who are in high station and good fortune, like Oedipus and Thyestes and the famous men of such families as those. The successful plot must then have a singleA(PLOU=S elsewhere in the Poetics means "simple" as opposed to PEPLEGME/NOS, "complex"; here it is opposed to DIPLOU=S, which describes a double denouement, @@ -736,7 +736,7 @@ added cvs log keyword great flaw in such a man as we have described, or of one who is better rather than worse. This can be seen also in actual practice. For at first poets accepted any plots, but to-day the best tragedies are - written about a few families—Alcmaeon for instance and Oedipus and Orestes and Meleager and Thyestes and + written about a few families—Alcmaeon for instance and Oedipus and Orestes and Meleager and Thyestes and Telephus and all the others whom it befell to suffer or inflict terrible disasters. Judged then by the theory of the art, the bestThis is modified by 19 in the following chapter, where he finds an even better formula for the tragic effect. tragedy is @@ -746,13 +746,13 @@ added cvs log keyword That is, as we have shown, correct. And there is very good evidence of this, for on the stage and in competitions such plays appear the most tragic of all, if they are successful, and even if Euripides is in other respects a bad manager,Against Euripides Aristotle makes the following - criticisms: (1)his choruses are often irrelevant; - (2)the character of the heroine in his Iphigeneia in + criticisms: (1)his choruses are often irrelevant; + (2)the character of the heroine in his <title>Iphigeneia in Tauris is inconsistent; - (3)in the Medea the deliberate killing of the + (3)in the Medea the deliberate killing of the children is ineffective and the play is inartistically ended by the machina; - (4)the character of Menelaus in the Orestes is - needlessly depraved; (5)Melanippe is too philosophical for a + (4)the character of Menelaus in the Orestes is + needlessly depraved; (5)Melanippe is too philosophical for a woman. yet he is certainly the most tragic of the poets. Next in order comes the structure which some put first, that which has a double issue, like the Odyssey, and ends in opposite ways for the good characters and @@ -769,7 +769,7 @@ added cvs log keyword To produce this effect by means of an appeal to the eye is inartistic and needs adventitious aid, while those who by such means produce an effect which is not fearful but merely monstrous have nothing in common with tragedy.that here were plays which relied for their effect on - the scenery and "make up" is clear from chapter 17:—"The Phorcides and + the scenery and "make up" is clear from chapter 17:—"The Phorcides and Prometheus and Scenes laid in Hades." It was even possible to produce the Eumenides so badly as to bring it into this category. But Aristotle's criticism here includes the more important point that the poignancy @@ -789,16 +789,16 @@ added cvs log keyword actual calamity goes. Nor would there be if they were neither friends nor enemies. But when these calamities happen among friends,when for instance brother - kills brother, or son father, or mother son, or son mother—either kills or + kills brother, or son father, or mother son, or son mother—either kills or intends to kill, or does something of the kind, that is what we must look for. Now it is not right to break up the traditional stories, I mean, for instance, Clytaemnestra being killed by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alcmaeon, but the poet must show invention and make a skilful use of the tradition.But we must state more clearly what is meant by "skilful." The action may happen in the way in which the old dramatists made their characters - act—consciously and knowing the facts, as EuripidesThis does not necessarily imply that Aristotle reckons Euripides - “a modern,” since the Greek can equally mean - “Euripides as well as other old dramatists.” also + act—consciously and knowing the facts, as EuripidesThis does not necessarily imply that Aristotle reckons Euripides + “a modern,” since the Greek can equally mean + “Euripides as well as other old dramatists.” also made his Medea kill her children. Or they may do the deed but without realizing the horror of it and then discover the relationship afterwards, like Oedipus in Sophocles. That indeed lies outside the @@ -855,8 +855,8 @@ added cvs log keyword of Odysseus in the ScyllaA dithyramb by Timotheus. Cf. Aristot. Poet. 26.3. and Melanippe's speechA - fragment survives (Eur. Fr. 484 - (Nauck)). Euripides seems to have given her a knowledge of + fragment survives (Eur. Fr. 484 + (Nauck)). Euripides seems to have given her a knowledge of science and philosophy inappropriate to a woman.; of inconsistent character Iphigeneia in Aulis, for the suppliant Iphigeneia is not at all like her later character. In character-drawing just as much as in the arrangement of the incidents one should always seek what is inevitable or probable, @@ -893,7 +893,7 @@ added cvs log keyword the distinctive form and making a likeness, yet paint people better than they are. It is the same with the poet. When representing people who are hot-tempered or lazy, or have other such traits of character, he should make them such, yet men of worth - [an example of hardness]Apparently a note on Achilles which has been copied by mistake into the + [an example of hardness]Apparently a note on Achilles which has been copied by mistake into the text.; take the way in which Agathon and Homer portray Achilles. Keep, then, a careful eye on these rules and also on the appeal to the eyei.e., stage-craft rather than @@ -902,7 +902,7 @@ added cvs log keyword discussed in the published treatises.As distinct from the body of "esoteric" doctrine circulated by oral teaching among Aristotle's pupils. What a "Discovery" is has been already stated.In chapter 11.As for kinds of Discovery, first comes the least artistic kind, - which is largely used owing to incompetence—discovery by tokens. + which is largely used owing to incompetence—discovery by tokens. These may be congenital, like "the spear the Earth-born bear" or stars, like those which CarcinusA prolific tragedian of the early fourth century. The family are agreeably ridiculed in Aristophanes' Wasps. uses in his @@ -981,8 +981,8 @@ added cvs log keyword stories, of misleading the audience by false clues in order to make the final revelation more effective. Best of all is the discovery which is brought about directly by the incidents, the surprise being produced by means of - what is likely—take the scene in Sophocles' Oedipus or in - the Iphigeneia—for it is likely enough that she should want + what is likely—take the scene in Sophocles' Oedipus or in + the Iphigeneia—for it is likely enough that she should want to send a letter. These are the only discovery scenes which dispense with artificial tokens, like necklaces.The classical example of these tokens in English drama is "the strawberry mark on the left arm" in @@ -1001,7 +1001,7 @@ added cvs log keyword Margoliouth suggests that if Amphiaraus were a god he should come down, and if a mere hero, he sould not have a temple. In The Master of Ballantrae Mrs. Henry cleans a - sword by thrusting it up to the hilt in the ground—which is iron-bound + sword by thrusting it up to the hilt in the ground—which is iron-bound by frost. The would be noticed on the stage: a reader may miss the incongruity. The poet should also, as far as @@ -1024,7 +1024,7 @@ added cvs log keyword and has disappeared beyond the ken of those who sacrificed her and has been established in another country, where it is a custom to sacrifice strangers to the goddess; and this priesthood she holds. Some time afterwards it happens that the - brother of the priestess arrives there—the fact that the god told him to + brother of the priestess arrives there—the fact that the god told him to go there, and why, and the object of his journey, lie outside the outline-plot. He arrives, is seized, and is on the point of being sacrificed, when he reveals his identity either by Euripides' method or according to Polyidos, by making the very @@ -1062,14 +1062,14 @@ added cvs log keyword different mainly in virtue of the plot, that is to say those that have the same entanglement and denouement. Many who entangle well are bad at the denouement. Both should always be mastered.There are four varieties of - tragedy—the same as the number given for the "elements"Apparently the reference here is to the four elements + tragedy—the same as the number given for the "elements"Apparently the reference here is to the four elements into which in the course of chapters 10-15. Plot has been analysed, "Reversal," "Discovery," "Calamity," and "Character." But the symmetry is spoilt by the fact that his first species, "the complex play," corresponds to the first two of these four elements, viz. to "Reversal" and "Discovery." Thus his fourth species is left in the air and he hurriedly introduces "Spectacle" as the fourth corresponding element. Other explanations seem even sillier than - this.— first the + this.— first the complex kind, which all turns on reversal and discovery; the "calamity play" like the stories of Ajax and Ixion; the "character play" like the Phthian WomenBy @@ -1085,7 +1085,7 @@ added cvs log keyword been good poets in each style, to demand that a single author should surpass the peculiar merits of each. One must remember, as we have often said, not to make a tragedy an epic structure: by epic I - mean made up of many stories—suppose, for instance, one were to dramatize + mean made up of many stories—suppose, for instance, one were to dramatize the IIiad as a whole. The length of the IIiad allows to the parts their proper size, but in plays the result is full of disappointment. And the proof is that all who have dramatized the Sack of @@ -1096,7 +1096,7 @@ added cvs log keyword "simple" storiesi.e., those that have no "Discovery" or "Reversal." See chapter 10. too,they admirably achieve their end, which is a tragic effect that also satisfies your feelings. This is achieved when the wise man, who is, however, - unscrupulous, is deceived—like Sisyphus—and the man who is brave + unscrupulous, is deceived—like Sisyphus—and the man who is brave but wicked is worsted. And this, as Agathon says, is a likely result, since it is likely that many quite unlikely things should happen. The chorus too must be regarded as one of the actors. It must @@ -1108,8 +1108,8 @@ added cvs log keyword have been already discussed. It remains to speak of "Diction" and "Thought." All that concerns Thought may be left to the treatise on Rhetoric, for the subject is more proper to that - inquiry."Thought"—no English word - exactly corresponds with DIA/NOIA—is + inquiry."Thought"—no English word + exactly corresponds with DIA/NOIA—is all that which is expressed or effected by the words (cf. Aristot. Poet. 6.22, 23, and 25). Thus the student is rightly referred to the Art of Rhetoric, where he learns "what to say in every case." Aristotle adds that the rules there given @@ -1130,7 +1130,7 @@ added cvs log keyword which is proper to elocution or to the man who knows the master artRhetoric is a "master art" in relation to elocution, since it decides the effects to be produced, and elocution decides how to produce them. So the doctor's art is "master" to that of the dispenser, and the - art of riding to that of the maker of bridles.—I mean for + art of riding to that of the maker of bridles.—I mean for instance, what is a command, a prayer, a statement, a threat, question, answer, and so on. The knowledge or ignorance of such matters brings upon the poet no censure worth serious consideration. For who @@ -1174,11 +1174,11 @@ added cvs log keyword a cause of despair. Bywater's notes suggest a restoration. A noun is a composite sound with a meaning, not indicative of time, no part of which has a meaning by itself; for in compounds we do not use each part as having a meaning of - its own, for instance, in "Theodorus," there is no meaning of DW=RON (gift). A verb is a composite sound with + its own, for instance, in "Theodorus," there is no meaning of DW=RON (gift). A verb is a composite sound with a meaning, indicative of time, no part of which has a meaning by - itself—just as in nouns. "Man" or "white" does not signify time, but + itself—just as in nouns. "Man" or "white" does not signify time, but "walks" and "has walked" connote present and past time respectively. A - case(or inflection)of a noun or verb is that which signifies + case(or inflection)of a noun or verb is that which signifies either "of" or "to" a thing and the like;or gives the sense of "one or many" e.g. men and man; or else it may depend on the delivery, for example question and command. "Walked?" and "Walk!" are verbal "cases" of this kind. A phraseThere is no exact @@ -1196,8 +1196,8 @@ added cvs log keyword kinds. There is the simple noun, by which I mean one made up of parts that have no meaning, like GH=, and there is the compound noun. These may be made up either of a - part which has no meaning and a part which has a meaning—though it does - not have its meaning in the compound—or of two parts both having a + part which has no meaning and a part which has a meaning—though it does + not have its meaning in the compound—or of two parts both having a meaning. A compound noun may be triple and quadruple and multiple, e.g. many of the bombastic names like Hermocaicoxanthus.A compound of the names of @@ -1228,9 +1228,9 @@ added cvs log keyword that to which the term supplanted by the metaphor is relative.This may claim to be one of Aristotle's least lucid sentences. It means this: If Old Age: Life:: Evening: Day, then we may call old age " the Evening of Life." In that case "old age" is the "term supplanted by the - metaphor," and it is relative to " Life"; therefore "Life" (i.e., "that - to which the term supplanted by the metaphor is relative")is added to - the metaphorical (or "transferred") term + metaphor," and it is relative to " Life"; therefore "Life" (i.e., "that + to which the term supplanted by the metaphor is relative")is added to + the metaphorical (or "transferred") term "Evening."For instance, a cup is to Dionysus what a shield is to Ares; so he will call the cup "Dionysus's shield" and the shield "Ares' cup." Or old age is to life as evening is to day; so he will call the evening @@ -1243,7 +1243,7 @@ added cvs log keyword to the seed, and so you have the phrase "sowing the god-created fire." Besides this another way of employing metaphor is to call a thing by the strange name and then to deny it some attribute of that name. For instance, suppose you call the shield not - "Ares' cup" but a “wineless cup.” . . .Or you might call Love "Venus's bloodless War." At this point a few + "Ares' cup" but a “wineless cup.” . . .Or you might call Love "Venus's bloodless War." At this point a few lines on "Ornament" have evidently been lost, since this is its place in the catalogue of nouns above. By "ornament" he seems to mean an embellishing epithet or synonym. In the Rhetoric he quotes "Our lady the fig-tree" as @@ -1394,14 +1394,14 @@ added cvs log keyword time, and used well. Of his poems he made the one, the Iliad , a "simple" story turning on "calamity," and the Odyssey a - "complex" story—it is full of "discoveries"—turning on + "complex" story—it is full of "discoveries"—turning on character. Besides this they surpass all other poems in diction and thought. Epic differs from tragedy in the length of the composition and in metre. The limit of length - already givenSee Aristot. Poet. 7.12. will suffice—it must be + already givenSee Aristot. Poet. 7.12. will suffice—it must be possible to embrace the beginning and the end in one view,which would be the case if the compositions were shorter than the ancient epics but reached to the length of the tragedies presented - at a single entertainment.“Entertainment” must mean a festival. At the City Dionysia + at a single entertainment.“Entertainment” must mean a festival. At the City Dionysia three poets competed, each with three tragedies. By the end of the fifth century only one Satyr play was performed at each festival. But the tragedies were longer than those we possess. It is therefore likely that the nine tragedies @@ -1437,7 +1437,7 @@ added cvs log keyword than his own. Both these "manners" come under the head of "Imitation." When Aristotle says "the poet speaks himself" and "plays a part himself" he refers not to narrative, of which there is a great deal in Homer, but to the "preludes" - (cf. FROIMIASA/MENOS below) in + (cf. FROIMIASA/MENOS below) in which the poet, invoking the Muse, speaks in his own person. Ridgeway points out that in the whole of the Iliad @@ -1448,10 +1448,10 @@ added cvs log keyword dramatically, but Homer after a brief prelude at once brings in a man or a woman or some other character, never without character, but all having character of their own.<milestone ed="P" unit="para"/><milestone n="24.15" ed="P" unit="Loeb chap"/> Now the marvellous should certainly be portrayed in tragedy, but epic affords - greater scope for the inexplicable(which is the chief element in what is - marvellous), because we do not actually see the persons of the story. + greater scope for the inexplicable(which is the chief element in what is + marvellous), because we do not actually see the persons of the story. <milestone n="24.16" ed="P" unit="Loeb chap"/> The incident of - Hector's pursuit<note anchored="yes" resp="Fyfe"><title>Iliad, xxii. 205. sq. “And to the host divine Achilles nodded with his head a sign and let them not launch their bitter darts at Hector, lest another should win glory by shooting him and Achilles himself come second.” would look ridiculous + Hector's pursuitIliad, xxii. 205. sq. “And to the host divine Achilles nodded with his head a sign and let them not launch their bitter darts at Hector, lest another should win glory by shooting him and Achilles himself come second.” would look ridiculous on the stage, the people standing still and not pursuing and Achilles waving them back, but in epic that is not noticed. But that the marvellous causes pleasure is shown by the fact that people always tell a piece of news with additions by way of being agreeable. Above all, Homer has @@ -1465,18 +1465,18 @@ added cvs log keyword O. on his voyage to Troy. As evidence, he describes O.'s dress and his companions (Hom. Od. 19.164-260). P. commits the fallacy of inferring the truth of the - antecedent from the truth of the consequent: “If his story were true, + antecedent from the truth of the consequent: “If his story were true, he would know these details; But he does know them; Therefore his story is - true.” The artist in fiction uses the same fallacy, e.g.: - “If chessmen could come to life the white knight would be a duffer; - But he is a most awful duffer (look at him!); Therefore - chessmen can come to life.” He makes his deductions so convincing that + true.” The artist in fiction uses the same fallacy, e.g.: + “If chessmen could come to life the white knight would be a duffer; + But he is a most awful duffer (look at him!); Therefore + chessmen can come to life.” He makes his deductions so convincing that we falsely infer the truth of his hypothesis. What is convincing though impossible should always be preferred to what is possible and unconvincing. Stories should not be made up of inexplicable details; so far as possible there should be nothing inexplicable, or, - if there is, it should lie outside the story—as, for instance, Oedipus not - knowing how Laius died—and not in the play; for example, in the + if there is, it should lie outside the story—as, for instance, Oedipus not + knowing how Laius died—and not in the play; for example, in the Electra the news of the Pythian games,In Sophocles'Electrathe plot hinges on a false story of Orestes' death by an accident at the Pythian games. Presumably the anachronism shocked Aristotle. or in the Mysians the man who came from @@ -1508,7 +1508,7 @@ added cvs log keyword of them, how many kinds there are, and the nature of each kind, all will be clear if we look at them like this. Since the poet represents life, as a painter does or any other maker of likenesses, he must - always represent one of three things—either things as they were or are; or + always represent one of three things—either things as they were or are; or things as they are said and seem to be; or things as they should be. These are expressed in diction with or without rare words and metaphors, there being many modifications of diction, all of which we allow the poet to use. @@ -1522,7 +1522,7 @@ added cvs log keyword impossibility has been portrayed, but that is not an essential error. These considerations must, then, be kept in view in meeting the charges contained in these objections.Let us first take the charges against the art of poetry itself. If an impossibility has been portrayed, an error has been made. But it is justifiable if the poet thus achieves the - object of poetry—what that is has been already stated—and makes + object of poetry—what that is has been already stated—and makes that part or some other part of the poem more striking. The pursuit of Hector is an example of this.See Aristot. Poet. 24.16 and note. @@ -1539,7 +1539,7 @@ added cvs log keyword do, then say, "Such is the tale"; for instance, tales about gods. Very likely there is no advantage in telling them, and they are not true either, but may well be what Xenophanes declaredi.e., immoral and therefore untrue. He opened the assault on Homeric theology at the end of the sixth or the beginning of the - fifth century B.C.—all the same such is the tale. In another case, perhaps, there is no + fifth century B.C.—all the same such is the tale. In another case, perhaps, there is no advantage but "such was the fact," e.g. the case of the arms, "Their spears erect on butt-spikes stood,"Hom. Il. 10.152. Problem: "Surely a bad stance: they might so easily fall @@ -1593,8 +1593,8 @@ added cvs log keyword Zeus is instructing the Dream, whom he is sending to lure Agamemnon to disaster. Problem: "The last statement is a lie." Solution: "Change the accent and the statement DI/DOMEN DE/ OI( becomes a command - (the infinitive DIDO/MENAI written in a - shortened form and used as an imperative). The lie will then be told by + (the infinitive DIDO/MENAI written in a + shortened form and used as an imperative). The lie will then be told by the Dream and not by Zeus, who may thus save his reputation for veracity." and TO\ ME\N OU(= KATAPU/QETAI O)/MBRW|Hom. Il. 23.327: "A fathom high from the earth there rises a stump @@ -1611,7 +1611,7 @@ added cvs log keyword spent and at hand is the dawning, Far across are the stars and more than two parts of the night-time Are gone, but a third is still left us." Problem: If "more than two parts" are gone, a third cannot be left. Solution: PLE/W here means "full," i.e., " the full night of - two-thirds"="full two-thirds of the night is gone," and so Homer's + two-thirds"="full two-thirds of the night is gone," and so Homer's arithmetic is saved. Others according to the habitual use of the phrase, e.g. wine and water is called "wine" so you get the phrase "greaves of new-wrought tin";Problem: "Greaves are made not of tin but of an alloy of tin and copper." @@ -1664,7 +1664,7 @@ added cvs log keyword made of the improbability.An example is Euripides' intro duction of AegeusEur. Medea 663. In Aristotle's opinion there is no good reason for Aegeus's appearance and no good use is made of it. - or(of depravity)the character of Menelans in the + or(of depravity)the character of Menelans in the Orestes. The censures they bring are of five kinds; that things are either impossible or irrational or harmful or inconsistent or contrary to artistic correctness. The solutions must be studied under the heads specified above, @@ -1705,7 +1705,7 @@ added cvs log keyword function even without acting, just as much as epic, and its quality can be gauged by reading aloud. So, if it is in other respects superior, this disadvantage is not necessarily inherent. Secondly, tragedy has all the elements of the - epic—it can even use the hexameter— and in addition a considerable element of its own in the + epic—it can even use the hexameter— and in addition a considerable element of its own in the spectacle and the music, which make the pleasure all the more vivid; and this vividness can be felt whether it is read or acted. Another point is that it attains its end with greater economy of length. What is concentrated is @@ -1721,14 +1721,14 @@ added cvs log keyword less unity I mean an epic made up of several separate actions. The Iliad has many such parts and so has the Odyssey, and each by itself has a certain magnitude. And yet the composition of these poems is as perfect as can be and each of them - is—as far as an epic may be—a representation of a single action. + is—as far as an epic may be—a representation of a single action. If then tragedy is superior in - these respects and also in fulfilling its artistic function—for tragedies + these respects and also in fulfilling its artistic function—for tragedies and epics should produce not any form of pleasure but the pleasure we have describedi.e., the pleasure felt when by the - representation of life in art “relief is given” to pity, + representation of life in art “relief is given” to pity, fear, and other such emotions, or, to use a term now prevalent, when such - emotions are “released.”Cf. Aristot. Poet. 14.3.—then obviously, since it + emotions are “released.”Cf. Aristot. Poet. 14.3.—then obviously, since it attains its object better than the epic, the better of the two is tragedy. This must suffice for our treatment of tragedy and epic, their characteristics, their species, their constituent parts, and their number and attributes; for the causes of success